Solar - Science topic

Our planet has many ecosystems because its land and ocean content is finely balanced. It is estimated that only about 1% of worlds with water on the surface would have enough but not too much of it so that continents would exist all over the globe. The Earth's ecosphere is usually defined as the sum of its ecosystems, which makes it a closed system that facilitates life everywhere on Earth. By this definition, it is considered to have several different components: the atmosphere, geosphere, biosphere, hydrosphere, and sometimes, the magnetosphere. An ecosphere works by creating a balance between the living organisms and the environment within the enclosed space. The plants produce oxygen and absorb carbon dioxide, while the animals and microorganisms consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide. The solar wind speed decreases with distance, but the changes from solar minimum to solar maximum produce a larger effect. The latitudinal gradients of density and speed reverse over the solar cycle; at solar maximum speeds are higher near the solar equator whereas at solar minimum speeds are least near the equator. The Sun releases a constant stream of particles and magnetic fields called the solar wind. This solar wind slams worlds across the solar system with particles and radiation which can stream all the way to planetary surfaces unless thwarted by an atmosphere, magnetic field, or both. The surface field of the Sun that is produced by the combination of the solar dynamo-produced active region field emergence and the redistribution and decay of those fields provides the boundary conditions for the coronal magnetic field structure and thus the solar wind sources.

Solar panel (watt) × average hours of sunlight × 75% = daily watt hour

Para llevar a cabo una evaluación precisa del rendimiento de un panel solar utilizando una carga electrónica, es esencial seguir un enfoque metodológico riguroso. Sugiero los siguientes pasos:Preparación del sistema experimental: Asegúrate de contar con todos los componentes necesarios, incluyendo el panel solar, la carga electrónica adecuada, cables y conectores compatibles. Además, verifica que el entorno de prueba esté bien ventilado y libre de obstrucciones que puedan afectar la incidencia de la luz solar.Conexión cuidadosa: Realiza las conexiones eléctricas siguiendo las especificaciones del fabricante tanto del panel solar como de la carga electrónica. Utiliza cables de calibre adecuado y conectores seguros para evitar posibles cortocircuitos o daños en los equipos.Calibración y medición precisa: Antes de iniciar las pruebas, calibra los instrumentos de medición, como el multímetro, para garantizar la precisión de las lecturas. Luego, mide la corriente y tensión generadas por el panel solar en condiciones estándar de iluminación, sin carga conectada.Variación controlada de la carga: Introduce gradualmente la carga electrónica al sistema, comenzando con niveles de carga bajos y aumentándolos progresivamente. Registra meticulosamente las lecturas de corriente y tensión en cada configuración de carga para obtener un conjunto completo de datos.Análisis de resultados y conclusiones: Una vez completadas las pruebas, analiza los datos recopilados para evaluar el rendimiento del panel solar bajo diferentes condiciones de carga. Identifica cualquier tendencia o patrón significativo y extrae conclusiones sobre la eficiencia y capacidad del panel solar en términos de generación de energía.Documentación y presentación de hallazgos: Documenta detalladamente todos los procedimientos, resultados y conclusiones obtenidas durante el experimento. Utiliza gráficos, tablas y otros recursos visuales para comunicar claramente tus hallazgos en tu proyecto de maestría.Al seguir este enfoque sistemático y meticuloso, podrás realizar una evaluación exhaustiva y confiable del rendimiento del panel solar utilizando una carga electrónica como parte de tu proyecto de maestría.

Respected Sir, the output power of a solar cell decreases with increasing temperature. This is due to the negative temperature coefficient of solar cells, meaning that as temperature rises, the efficiency of solar cells decreases, leading to a reduction in output power.

Solar irradiance, on the other hand, directly affects the output power of a photovoltaic (PV) cell. Higher solar irradiance levels result in greater energy input to the solar cell, leading to increased output power. Conversely, lower solar irradiance levels result in reduced energy input and lower output power.

In photovoltaic systems, low-conductivity contacts affixed to the bottom surface of solar cells fulfill multiple vital functions. First off, by slowing the flow of charge carriers—holes and electrons—away from the cell, these contacts contribute to the reduction of electrical losses. More charge carriers can be steered toward the external circuit by restricting conductivity, which raises the solar cell's total efficiency. Furthermore, low-conductivity connections make it easier for the charge carriers produced inside the cell to be collected, improving solar energy harvesting. Additionally, they maximize the power output of the cell by preventing charge carrier recombination, which occurs when electrons and holes recombine before reaching the external circuit. Overall, enhancing electrical performance and raising the conversion efficiency of photovoltaic devices requires the use of low-conductivity connections on the bottom surface of sun cells.

Suresh Kumar Govindarajan

I will not be able to test my idea of ​​producing hydrogen from water in the presence of titanium dioxide nanoparticles and therefore I am passing it on to young researchers. This problem applies to aqueous quantum materials.

Dear Fayzulloeva Munira ,

you have to do this by yourself...

Please go to the following link of the RG help pages:

https://help.researchgate.net/hc/en-us/articles/14293099743121-How-to-make-content-private-or-remove-it,

scroll a bit down and follow the instructions to remove the publication.

That's it...

Good luck and

best regards

G.M.

Dr Murtadha Shukur and Dr Himanshu Tiwari thank you for your contribution to the discussion

The question is somewhat specious.

It makes the same mistake as most of the discussion about energy,

namely, it presumes that our current hyper-consumptive hyper-emissive sociopathic infinite-growth capitalist predatory-parasitic exploitive colonialist dominator cult-ure is immutable and inevitable and sacrosanct.

In reality, most of our societies are massively inefficient and unjust and unsupportable and unsustainable in the long term.

What is required, not as a "solution" but merely as the means to make

the impending crash less awful, is a determined engagement with

DrawDown

DeGrowth

DeIndustrialization of petrochemical monocrop agriculture

Doughnut Economics

DeColonization

DeepAdaptation

PostDoom

Solar PV certainly has some application but the reality is that

the energy density of petroleum - at standard temperature and pressure is not available from other sources.

The energy and resources NOT consumed are the most efficient.

Now, many such solar panels are connected in series in a form of solar string to get required voltage. Also, many such identical solar strings are connected in parallel to get the required current. Hence, in this way we get the required amount of energy by connecting solar panels. The radiation warms Earth's surface, and the surface radiates some of the energy back out in the form of infrared waves. As they rise through the atmosphere, they are intercepted by greenhouse gases, such as water vapor and carbon dioxide. Greenhouse gases trap the heat that reflects back up into the atmosphere.Total surface area of the earth required to produce enough power through solar alone is not as much as you might think. By one estimate it would require an area of 496,805 square kilometers. Dividing the global yearly demand by 400 kW•h per square meter (198,721,800,000,000 / 400) and we arrive at 496,804,500,000 square meters or 496,805 square kilometers (191,817 square miles) as the area required to power the world with solar panels. Solar power is more powerful than many people realize. If there were 3.5 hours of sunlight daily, the world would need 18.54 TW of solar power. Assuming the solar panels are rated at 350W, the world would need roughly 51.428 billion solar panels. Additionally, if 4 acres can accommodate a 1MW plant, 74.16 million acres of land would be required to power the planet. The atmosphere absorbs 23 percent of incoming sunlight while the surface absorbs 48. The atmosphere radiates heat equivalent to 59 percent of incoming sunlight; the surface radiates only 12 percent. In other words, most solar heating happens at the surface, while most radioactive cooling happens in the atmosphere. Without the Earth's rotation, tilt relative to the sun, and surface water, global circulation would be simple. With the Sun directly over the equator, the ground and atmosphere there would heat up more than the rest of the planet. This region would become very hot, with hot air rising into the upper atmosphere.

Solar power is more powerful than many people realize. It would only take 191,817 square miles of solar panels to power the entire Earth. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet. Most of the world's population live in areas with insolation levels of 150–300 watts/m2, or 3.5–7.0 kWh/m2 per day. The amount of sunlight that strikes the earth's surface in an hour and a half is enough to handle the entire world's energy consumption for a full year. Solar technologies convert sunlight into electrical energy either through photovoltaic (PV) panels or through mirrors that concentrate solar radiation. Space-based solar panels can generate 2,000 gigawatts of power constantly. This is 40 times more energy than a solar panel would generate on Earth annually. This is also several folds higher than the efficiency of solar panels today. Not all of the Sun's energy that enters Earth's atmosphere makes it to the surface. The atmosphere reflects some of the incoming solar energy back to space immediately and absorbs still more energy before it can reach the surface. The remaining energy strikes Earth and warms the surface. The average solar panel has a power output rating of 250 to 400 watts (W) and generates around 1.5 kilowatt-hours (kWh) of energy per day. The total surface area of all the rooftops in the entire world is around 0.2 million square kilometres and you wouldn't need to plaster them all with solar panels to meet the world's current electricity needs: in fact, only half of them would suffice. Technically, yes. There is sufficient Solar irradiance and PV panels are efficient enough to turn that insolation into enough energy to power the entire world. The solar panels are rated at 350W, the world would need roughly 51.428 billion solar panels. Additionally, if 4 acres can accommodate a 1MW plant, 74.16 million acres of land would be required to power the planet. Averaged over an entire year, approximately 342 watts of solar energy fall upon every square meter of Earth. This is a tremendous amount of energy—44 quadrillion (4.4 x 1016) watts of power to be exact.

My nuclear model explains how the nucleus forms. The reason for the rotation of gases in the core is very simple and there is no need to hypothesize the existence of BH. Nuclear reactions heat the Sun's core, not the other way around. And these reactions go on forever. My discoveries are classical and experimental.

While solar tower technology is a promising renewable energy source with significant potential, it's unlikely to completely replace conventional sources of energy like fossil fuels and nuclear power on its own.

Hey there Ankit Kumar!

Generating a "solar_g_eml.tdr" file in the TCAD Synopsys simulator for optical simulation of solar cells is actually quite straightforward. Here's a concise rundown:

1. **Set Up Your Simulation**: Ensure that you Ankit Kumar have your solar cell structure defined and ready for simulation in the TCAD environment.

2. **Define Optical Properties**: You'll need to specify the optical properties of your materials within the simulation setup. This includes parameters such as absorption coefficients, refractive indices, and any relevant optical constants.

3. **Run the Simulation**: Once your simulation setup is complete, run the simulation in the TCAD Synopsys environment. This will calculate the optical response of your solar cell structure.

4. **Generate "solar_g_eml.tdr" File**: During the simulation process, the TCAD Synopsys simulator will automatically generate various output files, including the "solar_g_eml.tdr" file, which contains the optical generation rate data for your solar cell.

5. **Post-Processing**: Depending on your specific analysis needs, you Ankit Kumar may further process the data in the "solar_g_eml.tdr" file to extract relevant information for your optical simulation.

By following these steps, you'll be able to generate the "solar_g_eml.tdr" file and analyze the optical performance of your solar cell using the TCAD Synopsys simulator. If you Ankit Kumar need more detailed guidance on any specific step, feel free to ask!

Hey there Hossein Karimi!

When it comes to standalone renewable power systems like solar panels and wind turbines paired with energy storage solutions, the economic feasibility largely depends on various factors such as location, energy demand, initial investment costs, and maintenance expenses.

For small-scale electricity usage, standalone setups can indeed be economically viable, especially in remote or off-grid areas where connecting to traditional power grids is either impractical or too costly. These systems offer independence from fluctuating utility prices and provide a reliable source of clean energy.

However, it's crucial to conduct a thorough feasibility study to determine the optimal system size, the efficiency of energy storage, expected lifespan, and potential maintenance requirements. Additionally, considering advancements in renewable energy technology and decreasing costs, standalone setups are becoming increasingly attractive from an economic standpoint.

Ultimately, while standalone solar and wind systems with energy storage can offer economic satisfaction for small-scale electricity usage, careful planning and analysis are essential to ensure long-term viability and return on investment.

Let me know if you Hossein Karimi need more details or assistance with anything else!

Yeas, it can be found an archive of synoptic solar maps by Patrick McIntosh

Nanopartiküller güneş enerjisi üretimi için üretilmiştir. Bu yüzden nanopartiküller güneş enerjisi üretim alanı dışında bırakılmamalı. Nanopartiküller devre dışı bırakılırsa verim düşer.Yapılan hesaplama keyfi ise nanopartiküller de keyfi olarak seçilir.

You need the solar irradiation in watts per square meter, the temperature of the water inside the still. Then you need to calculate the input by multiplying the area of the solar still with the time (one hour) and the solar irradiance. Then calculate the energy output.

What do you mean by spectral radiation here? Your FDTD solver should be able to retrieve the absorption of your structure, do you need more than that?

Ask NASA website to collect data

Hi,

It depends on how you want to calculate that efficiency.

In most cases, yes, it should be included.

I also think that Neura network is suitable and best choice

Dr Kedar Mehta thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Analyisis means that I should enter the equations?

Yes, for surfaces tilted to the equator, it is well known that the Liu&Jordan isotropic assumption results in significant underestimation. See, e.g.,

The transition to zero-carbon fuel emissions in manufacturing industries offers several benefits both environmentally and economically.

Some of the key benefits include:

1. Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHG): The main advantage is the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). This contributes to mitigating climate change and meeting international emissions reduction targets.

2. Compliance with Environmental Regulations: Using zero-carbon fuels helps companies comply with increasingly strict environmental regulations. This can result in lower penalties and a better corporate reputation.

3. Energy Efficiency: Many zero-carbon fuel technologies, such as renewable energy and electrification, tend to be more efficient compared to traditional power generation methods. This can lead to more efficient utilization of resources and savings in operating costs.

4. Energy Independence: By using renewable energy sources, manufacturing industries can become less dependent on traditional energy supplies and more self-sufficient, reducing vulnerability to price fluctuations and availability of fossil fuels.

5. Technological Innovation: The transition to zero-carbon fuels drives innovation in sustainable technologies. This can open new market opportunities, improve the company's competitiveness and encourage the development of cleaner technologies.

6. Improved Brand Image: Companies that adopt sustainable practices and reduce their carbon footprint often experience an improvement in their brand image. This can result in greater acceptance by consumers and customers who value environmental responsibility.

7. Access to Green Markets: Some markets and customers are increasingly interested in low-carbon products and services. Adopting sustainable manufacturing practices can open opportunities to access these markets and meet the demand of environmentally conscious consumers.

8. Resilience to Changes in Regulation and Energy Prices: The adoption of zero-emission fuels can make companies less sensitive to changes in environmental regulation and energy prices, providing them with greater stability long-term.

In summary, the transition to zero-carbon fuel in manufacturing industries not only contributes to climate change mitigation, but can also generate economic benefits and improve the competitive position of companies in an increasingly environmentally conscious world. atmosphere.

Dr Joao Lucas de Souza Silva thank you for your contribution to the discussion

ML as a tool is being used in general solar energy research. e.g. one recent application is in digital twin implementation of photovoltaic power plants using ML models to detect faults, optimize maintenance, scenario simulation etc. DTs involve heavy use of ML and is a multi-faceted domain from data acquisition, analysis, visualization, and using the data to train an ML model and update it with real-time measurable parameters like, Temperature, windspeed, Voc, Isc etc.

The DT field can still be considered in its infancy.

Similarly, for power electronics, I recently read a paper that implemented a DT of a Boost converter ( "DC-DC Boost Converters Parameters Estimation

Based on Digital Twin" ). There are other works as well that are using ML based DTs for different power electronic circuits.

Increased investment in agricultural desalination should be done with caution, taking into account context-specific problems and opportunities. It may be a helpful solution in certain locations, particularly where water shortage is acute, but it should be part of a larger strategy that incorporates sustainable water management practices and takes environmental, economic, and social aspects into account.

If the solar panel has a higher power output than the inverter's capacity, it is not advisable to directly connect them. Connecting a higher-power solar panel to a smaller inverter can lead to inefficient operation, potential damage to the inverter, or even pose safety risks.

To ensure proper operation and safety, it is essential to match the power rating of the solar panel with an appropriately sized inverter. The power rating of the inverter should be equal to or greater than the solar panel's power output. It is ensuring that the inverter can handle the power generated by the panel without overloading or causing damage.

However, it is possible to connect a large solar panel to a small inverter by incorporating necessary components such as an input current filter and appropriate fuses on both the input and output sides. When selecting fuses for the system, it is important to consider the power size of the inverter load type.

Dr Murtadha Shukur thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Yes, solar panels can work without direct sunlight. The matter of fact is solar panels use daylight energy to produce electricity, and they do not need direct sunlight to work.However, even when there is no sun, solar panels can still produce electricity. Solar panels are designed to work in all weather conditions, including cloudy days and even during the night. Solar panels use ultraviolet light to create power. Even on a cloudy day, there is ultraviolet light present. It will come as no surprise to learn that solar panels are most effective when they receive direct sunlight, but direct sunlight isn't required for solar panels to generate energy. Shade, clouds, rain, and snow might reduce the output of a solar panel system, but both direct and indirect sunlight produce electricity. Most solar lights run between 6 and10 hours on a full battery charge. This is purposefully designed so that lights can run all night after a day of average sunlight. The maximum amount of electricity the system can produce under ideal conditions (known as 'peak sun'). Sometimes called 'rated capacity' or 'rated output', this is taken to be 1,000 watts (or 1 kW) of sunlight for every square metre of panel. Most domestic solar panel systems have a capacity of between 1 kW and 4 kW. The highest wattage solar panel introduced to the market can range from 1000 W to 2000 W or even more, depending on the purpose such as, factory uses, charging stations, etc. Heavy-duty solar panels have the highest storage capacity and can deliver maximum power output. Though estimates range, solar panels will generate about 10 – 25% of their normal power output on a cloudy day and solar panels produce no electricity at night.

Modern solar panels offset the CO2 used to create the panel in less than 2 years, and in some cases, less than one year and, the solar panels are designed to produce energy for 25 years, so they save about 10–20X the CO2 used to produce them. Solar panels emit around 50g of CO2 per kWh produced in its first few years of operation. By the third year of having solar panels, most solar panels become carbon neutral. This is still roughly 20 times less than the carbon output of coal-powered electricity sources. PV array is the short term used for the photovoltaic array. If a PV module is used to absorb and generate electricity, the PV array on the other hand is the full energy generating equipment that is composed of a different number of panels of a PV module. Multiply those renewable, carbon-free kilowatt hours you get: 10,000kWh X 0.846 = 8,460 lbs of CO2; 30,000,000 kWh X 0.846 = 25,380,000 lbs of CO2 a year and900, 000,000 kWh x 0.846 = 761,400,000 lbs of CO2 over 30 years. A cell is defined as the semiconductor device that converts sunlight into electricity. A PV module refers to a number of cells connected in series and in a PV array, modules are connected in series and in parallel. The modification presented in this paper accounts for both parallel and series connections in an array. Solar energy technologies and power plants do not produce air pollution or greenhouse gases when operating. Using solar energy can have a positive, indirect effect on the environment when solar energy replaces or reduces the use of other energy sources that have larger effects on the environment. An individual photovoltaic device is known as a solar cell. Due to its size, it produces 1 to 2 watts of electricity, but you can easily increase the power output by connecting cells, which makes up a module or panel.

The maximum radiation intensity of the solar spectrum occurs at 500 nm, towards the blue end of the visible range. The complete spectrum comprises the ultraviolet (UV), visible (Vis) and infrared (IR) wavelengths. However, these wavelength ranges need to be sub-divided depending on the individual application fields. The maximum recorded direct solar radiation on the surface of the earth is 1050 W/m2. The maximum global radiation on a horizontal surface at ground level has been recorded is 1120 W/m2. Solar radiation is largely optical radiation [radiant energy within a broad region of the electromagnetic spectrum that includes ultraviolet (UV), visible (light) and infrared radiation], although both shorter wavelength (ionizing) and longer wavelength (microwaves and radiofrequency) radiation is present. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm. The heat generated by this absorption is emitted as long wave infrared radiation, some of which radiates out into space. About 40 per cent of the solar radiation received at the earth's surface on clear days is visible radiation within the spectral range 0.4 to 0.7 μm, while 51 per cent is infrared radiation in the spectral region 0.7 to 4 μm. The total radiation emitted by the sun in unit time remains practically constant. As it traverses our atmosphere, it gets scatterd by clouds, atmospheric gas molecules, dust particles etc. Some of it is absorbed by the some gas molecules. The maximum radiation that can be received from solar light is about 1000 watts per square meter (W/m²). Some of this incoming radiation is reflected off clouds, some is absorbed by the atmosphere, and some passes through to the Earth's surface. Larger aerosol particles in the atmosphere interact with and absorb some of the radiation, causing the atmosphere to warm.

YES, because Moonlight is nothing but reflected Sunlight. Solar pv panels do convert moonlight to electricity. It can be used to power PV cells at a cost of 345:1, meaning, a panel that would normally produce 3450 W at high noon would produce only 10 W of power during the full moon. Solar panels need light preferably sunlight to create energy. Although they can generate some energy from other light sources such as street lights and even the moon, the output is very low. Moon energy is not an entirely new concept. One power source already in operation relies on the moon's gravitational pull to spin its generators. Tidal power plants arranged like hydroelectric dams have been around for decades. The reality is that the electricity generated by solar panels at night is minimal. On a perfect night, with no cloud cover and a full moon, a solar panel will only produce between 0.2%- 0.3% of the normal energy they would produce in direct sunlight. This amount of energy isn't even enough to power a basic light bulb. On a clear night with a full moon, you should only expect 0.3% of the energy production that you would experience in direct sunlight. That means that if your solar panels typically produce 300 watts of power during the daytime, they will only generate roughly one watt in direct, full moonlight. Given that moonlight is just sunlight reflected off the moon, you'll be relieved to learn that yes, solar panels can operate with moonlight. Your solar panels will, however, create very little power at night, even if the moon is shining directly on them with no clouds in the sky. To illustrate why solar panels would not work at night, it is useful to calculate the amount of energy within moonlight. A full moon leads to illumination equaling 0.108 lux. A lux, by comparison, equals 1 lumen per square meter. This corresponds to energy of approximately 0.0006 watts per square meter.Even in below-freezing weather, solar panels turn sunlight into electricity. That's because solar panels absorb energy from our sun's abundant light, not the sun's heat. In fact, cold climates are actually optimal for solar panel efficiency. So long as sunlight is hitting a solar panel, it will generate electricity. System Size X 2.6 = kWh avg daily winter output. So for a 5kW system, this would be 13kWh a day on average. So a 5kW solar system should on average produce around 20kWh per day. You will likely see much more power produced during great solar days in summer, probably up to 30kWh and much less power produced during a cloudy winter day maybe lower than 10kWh. But over the year it should average out to around 20kWh.

Dr Hamit Can thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Hamit Can thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Near the equator, the angle of the Sun is usually higher throughout the year. Because of this, the sun is generally stronger in these places than in places farther from the equator. Countries close to the equator, like those in the tropics, get consistently strong sunlight, making solar panels produce more energy. As the Earth orbits the sun on a tilted axis, regions closer to the equator reap higher energy production. Weather conditions like precipitation, pollution, and fog affect efficiency, yet solar panels can generate power even in cloudy conditions. Not surprisingly, the site with the highest solar energy potential on Earth happens to be near the equator, surrounded by an arid climate away from major sources of pollution, and it also happens to be on a plateau. In locations close to the equator, the sun has a high position in the sky during most of the year, and solar panels are installed horizontally, facing up. Because the Earth is a sphere, the surface gets much more intense sunlight (heat) at the equator than at the poles. During the equinox (the time of year when the amount of daylight and nighttime are approximately equal), the Sun passes directly overhead at noon on the equator. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. This means that less solar radiation is absorbed per square cm (or inch) of surface area at higher latitudes than at lower latitudes, and that the tropics are warmer than the poles. As the equator is the farthest curve of the sphere, it receives the most direct sunlight. This is why the equator is one of the hottest areas of the planet. The sun's rays are strongest at the equator where the sun is most directly overhead and where UV rays must travel the shortest distance through the atmosphere. Venus is always hotter, even at night. As the innermost planet in the Solar System, Mercury receives the most radiation from the Sun: almost four times as much as Venus receives. At its hottest, Mercury reaches daytime temperatures of ~800 °F, while at night, it plunges to more than 100 degrees below zero. More solar radiation is received and absorbed near the equator than at the poles. Near the equator, the Sun's rays strike the Earth most directly, while at the poles the rays strike at a steep angle. The equator receives the most direct and concentrated amount of sunlight.

Solar thermal and photovoltaic (PV) technologies serve different purposes in harnessing solar energy. Comparing their efficiency depends on the specific application.

Solar thermal systems typically capture sunlight to generate heat, which can be used for various purposes, including electricity generation or heating water. In some cases, solar thermal systems can achieve high efficiencies in converting sunlight into usable heat, especially in applications like concentrated solar power (CSP).

On the other hand, solar photovoltaic cells directly convert sunlight into electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The efficiency of solar PV systems has improved over time, and modern PV technologies can convert a significant portion of sunlight into electricity. However, as of now, the overall efficiency of solar thermal systems can sometimes be higher, especially in large-scale applications.

This can happen when the number of sunspots in one hemisphere peak at a different time than the other hemisphere, causing an extended maximum. Solar maximum can last about two years before things die down, meaning the chance of solar storms can remain high for longer than the actual peak. The lifespan of a solar maximum is about 11 years. During this time, the number of sunspots on the Sun's surface increases dramatically, as does the amount of solar radiation emitted. The estimated operational lifespan of a PV module is about 30-35 years, although some may produce power much longer. At mid latitudes, the sun's rays hit the Earth at a slant. This means that incoming solar radiation is spread over a larger surface area, and so is less intense than at equatorial latitudes. Earth's mid latitudes generally experience seasonal warm and cool temperatures during the year.The sun angle at a place varies over the course of the year as a result of the constant tilt and parallelism of the earth's axis. As the sun angle decreases, light is spread over a larger area and decreases in intensity. This is due to decreasing incoming sunlight angles that result in the Sun's rays being spread out over a greater surface area of the Earth. Latitudes near the poles always receive the Sun's rays at lower angles, thus creating a colder climate. Because of the curvature of the Earth, sunlight strikes the poles at a low angle. Rays striking Earth at a low angle must pass through more atmospheres. Earth's atmosphere absorbs and reflects solar energy. The more atmosphere the rays have to pass through, the less solar energy reaches Earth's surface. The Sun provides the Earth with most of its energy. Today, about 71% of the sunlight that reaches the Earth is absorbed by its surface and atmosphere. Absorption of sunlight causes the molecules of the object or surface it strikes to vibrate faster, increasing its temperature. The amount of solar energy reaching the Earth is 70 percent. The surface of the Earth absorbs 51 percent of the insolation. Water vapor and dust account for 16 percent of the energy absorbed. The other 3 percent is absorbed by clouds.

Dr Murtadha Shukur thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Murtadha Shukur thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dr Murtadha Shukur thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Yes, solar panels can work with reflected sunlight, but the efficiency of energy conversion will be lower compared to direct sunlight. This is because the reflection process reduces the intensity of the light, and solar panels are most efficient at converting high-intensity light into electricity.

The effect of variation of temperature on a solar panel is complex and depends on several factors, including the type of solar cell material, the operating temperature range, and the overall system design. In general, solar panels perform better in cooler temperatures. However, they can still generate electricity in warmer conditions, although the efficiency may decrease.

Here's a more detailed explanation of each aspect:

Solar panels rely on photons, the energy particles in sunlight, to generate electricity. When photons strike the surface of a solar cell, they can knock loose electrons, creating an electric current. Reflected sunlight still contains photons, so solar panels can still generate electricity from it. However, the reflection process can scatter and reduce the intensity of the light, which means that fewer photons will reach the solar cells and fewer electrons will be knocked loose, resulting in lower electricity production.

The efficiency loss due to reflected sunlight depends on the reflectivity of the surface and the angle of incidence. Highly reflective surfaces, such as mirrors, can direct most of the sunlight onto the solar panels, minimizing the efficiency loss. However, perfectly reflective surfaces are difficult to achieve, and real-world mirrors typically reflect around 90-95% of the incident light. Additionally, the angle of incidence affects the amount of sunlight that is reflected. When sunlight strikes a surface at a perpendicular angle, the reflection is more direct and efficient. As the angle of incidence decreases, the reflection becomes more scattered, reducing the efficiency.

The efficiency of solar cells is inversely proportional to temperature. This means that as the temperature of a solar cell increases, its efficiency decreases. This is because higher temperatures increase the energy of the electrons in the solar cell, making them more likely to escape and recombine with other electrons without generating electricity.

The effect of temperature variation on solar panel performance is more pronounced in high-efficiency solar cells, such as those made from silicon. These cells are more sensitive to temperature changes due to their higher operating voltages and higher concentration of charge carriers. In contrast, amorphous silicon solar cells, which have a lower efficiency but are more tolerant of heat, are less affected by temperature variations.

The overall system design also plays a role in mitigating the effects of temperature variation on solar panel performance. For instance, using heat sinks or fans to cool the solar cells can help maintain a lower operating temperature and improve efficiency. Additionally, tracking systems that orient the solar panels towards the sun can maximize direct sunlight exposure and minimize the impact of temperature fluctuations

The highest glass transmittance is obtained with single pane of THIN LOW-IRON glass with anti-reflective coating. To minimize the exiting longwave you would have to apply another specific coating, but its efficiency would not be ideal with a single pane of glass.

Respected Sir,

Rk Naresh No, it is not possible for a solar panel to capture 100% of sunlight. The efficiency of solar panels, which is the ratio of the electrical energy output to the solar energy input, is typically less than 100%. As of my last knowledge update in January 2022, the most efficient commercially available solar panels have efficiencies around 20-22%, meaning they can convert about 20-22% of the incoming sunlight into electricity.

There are fundamental physical and thermodynamic limits, such as the Shockley-Queisser limit, that set a maximum efficiency for solar cells based on their materials and design. Achieving 100% efficiency would violate these limits.

Regarding the second part of your question, the distribution of solar energy absorption on Earth varies between land and oceans. On average, about 30% of the incoming solar radiation is reflected back into space, and the remaining 70% is absorbed by the Earth's surface.

The absorption is not evenly distributed between land and oceans due to differences in surface properties. Oceans, with their large heat capacity, absorb a significant amount of solar radiation. On average, about 50% of the solar energy reaching the Earth is absorbed by the oceans. The remaining 20% is absorbed by the land, including deserts, forests, and other terrestrial surfaces.

This differential absorption plays a crucial role in shaping climate patterns and atmospheric circulation. Oceans act as a heat reservoir, influencing weather systems and moderating climate variations. Land, on the other hand, can experience more rapid temperature changes due to lower heat capacity.

The more slanted the sun's rays are, the longer they travel through the atmosphere, becoming more scattered and diffuse. Because the Earth is round, the frigid Polar Regions never get a high sun, and because of the tilted axis of rotation, these areas receive no sun at all during part of the year. Moving from the equator to the poles, sunlight hits Earth at a less direct angle, so the Sun's rays are more spread out and aren't as intense. Places near the poles are cooler than places near the equator because the sunlight they receive is more spread out and the surface doesn't warm up as much. At the poles, the ice, snow and cloud cover create a much higher albedo, and the poles reflect more and absorb less solar energy than the lower latitudes. Through all of these mechanisms, the poles absorb much less solar radiation than equatorial regions, which is why the poles are cold and the tropics are very warm. Both Polar Regions of the earth are cold, primarily because they receive far less solar radiation than the tropics and mid-latitudes do. At either pole the sun never rises more than 23.5 degrees above the horizon and both locations experience six months of continuous darkness. The spectral composition and amount of solar energy intercepted at Earth's ground and water surfaces are not exactly the same as that arriving at the outer atmospheric edges, because the atmosphere interacts with and modifies the radiation traveling through it. Energy that is absorbed by the Earth is not the same as the energy incident on the Earth's surface. On a perfectly clear or cloudless day, when the Sun is directly overhead, solar irradiation is still reduced due to absorption (16%) and reflection (6%) by particles in Earth's atmosphere. The Spherical Shape of the Earth. Because the Earth is a sphere, the surface gets much more intense sunlight (heat) at the equator than at the poles. During the equinox (the time of year when the amount of daylight and nighttime are approximately equal), the Sun passes directly overhead at noon on the equator.

The solar radiation cycle and solar irradiance at the Earth's surface vary due to several factors, including the Earth's tilt, its rotation, and the presence of an atmosphere.

The solar radiation cycle is an approximately 11-year cycle of variation in the Sun's activity. During periods of high solar activity, the Sun emits more energy, including more ultraviolet (UV) radiation. This can lead to increases in the Earth's ozone layer, which can have both positive and negative effects on human health and the environment.

The solar radiation cycle is not uniform across the Earth's surface. The equator receives more solar radiation than the poles, and this difference is exacerbated during periods of high solar activity. This is because the Earth is tilted on its axis, and the equator is always tilted more directly towards the Sun than the poles.

Solar irradiance is the amount of solar radiation that reaches the Earth's surface. The amount of solar irradiance that reaches the Earth's surface is lower than the amount of solar radiation that reaches the top of the atmosphere due to several factors, including:

As a result of these factors, the amount of solar irradiance that reaches the Earth's surface varies depending on a number of factors, including the time of day, the season, and the latitude. The amount of solar irradiance that reaches the Earth's surface is also affected by clouds, aerosols, and other atmospheric conditions.

Solar panels produce more energy in summer for several reasons:

While solar panels are less efficient in the winter due to colder temperatures, they can still generate a significant amount of electricity. In fact, some solar panels are even more efficient in the winter because they are not operating at peak heat.

Incorporating solar power forecasting into a solar integrated economic load dispatch (SIED) can significantly improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the power generation system. Solar power forecasting helps in predicting the future solar power generation, enabling more accurate scheduling of energy resources and optimizing the economic load dispatch. Here's a step-by-step guide on how to incorporate solar power forecasting into a SIED:

1. **Data Collection:** Collect historical solar power generation data, weather data, and other relevant parameters that influence solar power generation, such as temperature, cloud cover, and solar irradiance.

2. **Select Forecasting Model:** Choose an appropriate forecasting model based on the available data and the specific requirements of the SIED system. Commonly used models include statistical models (like autoregressive integrated moving average - ARIMA), machine learning models (like artificial neural networks - ANN), and physical models (like numerical weather prediction models).

3. **Feature Selection:** Identify the relevant features that affect solar power generation, such as weather conditions, time of day, historical generation patterns, and seasonal variations.

4. **Model Training:** Train the selected forecasting model using historical data. Use techniques such as cross-validation to ensure the model's accuracy and reliability.

5. **Integration with SIED:** Integrate the solar power forecasting model into the SIED system. This integration should allow for real-time or near-real-time updating of the solar power forecast.

6. **Optimization Algorithm Adjustment:** Modify the SIED optimization algorithm to incorporate the solar power forecast as an input parameter. This ensures that the economic load dispatch takes into account the predicted solar power generation when scheduling the energy resources.

7. **Real-Time Monitoring and Feedback Loop:** Implement a system for real-time monitoring of actual solar power generation and continuous feedback to the forecasting model. This helps in continuously improving the accuracy of the forecasting model over time.

8. **Implementation of Control Strategies:** Incorporate control strategies that can adjust the power generation schedule dynamically based on the deviations between the actual and forecasted solar power generation. This might involve re-optimizing the economic load dispatch periodically throughout the day.

9. **Performance Evaluation:** Regularly assess the performance of the solar power forecasting model and the overall SIED system. Use metrics such as mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) and root mean square error (RMSE) to evaluate the accuracy of the forecasts.

10. **Continuous Improvement:** Continuously refine the forecasting model and the SIED system by incorporating feedback from the performance evaluation and incorporating any advancements in forecasting techniques and optimization algorithms.

By following these steps, you can effectively integrate solar power forecasting into a solar integrated economic load dispatch, leading to a more efficient and optimized power generation system.

To calculate the daily power output of a photovoltaic (PV) system using the temperature of the PV cells and the reference temperature by considering the temperature coefficient of the PV module. Here's a basic method to do this:

1) Determine the Temperature Coefficient: Check the specifications or datasheet of your PV module to find the temperature coefficient (typically given in %/°C) for the maximum power point (MPP). This coefficient represents how much the module's efficiency changes with temperature.

2) Measure or Obtain Temperature Data: You'll need the temperature data for the PV cells throughout the day. You can obtain this data from weather stations, sensors, or on-site measurements.

3) Define the Reference Temperature: The reference temperature is usually 25°C. This is the standard temperature at which PV module performance is rated.

4) Calculate Temperature Difference: For each time interval (e.g., hourly), calculate the difference between the actual cell temperature and the reference temperature.

5) Calculate Efficiency Change: Use the temperature coefficient to calculate how much the module's efficiency changes with the temperature difference. The formula is:

Efficiency Change (%) = Temperature Coefficient (%) / 100 * Temperature Difference (°C)

6) Calculate Daily Power Output: For each time interval, apply the efficiency change to the module's maximum power. Then sum up the power values for all intervals throughout the day to get the total daily power output.

Daily Power Output = Σ (Maximum Power at MPP * (1 + Efficiency Change))

Please note that this is a simplified approach. In reality, you may need to consider more factors such as shading, system losses, and changes in solar radiation throughout the day. Moreover, using specific software or simulation tools designed for PV system performance analysis can provide a more accurate calculation of daily power output.

Solar paint technology is an innovative approach that holds promise in addressing the massive scale of global energy demand and reducing carbon emissions contributing to climate change. Here's how it can contribute:

1. Solar Energy Generation: Solar paint technology involves the use of photovoltaic materials that can be applied like paint to various surfaces. These materials can harness sunlight and convert it into electricity, providing a decentralized and renewable energy source.

2. Building Integration: Solar paint can be applied to buildings, infrastructure, and even vehicles, allowing for seamless integration of solar energy generation into urban environments. This reduces the need for additional land or space, which is often a challenge with traditional solar panels.

3. Energy Access: Solar paint can extend access to clean energy in remote or underserved areas where traditional solar panels may not be feasible. It offers a scalable solution to provide electricity to communities worldwide.

4. Reduced Carbon Emissions: By generating clean energy from sunlight, solar paint reduces the reliance on fossil fuels for electricity generation. This leads to a significant reduction in carbon emissions, a major contributor to climate change.

5. Energy Efficiency: Integrating solar paint into building materials can enhance energy efficiency. It can help regulate indoor temperatures, reducing the need for heating or cooling, and thus, further decreasing energy consumption.

6. Public Awareness: The deployment of solar paint on visible structures can serve as a powerful educational tool. It raises public awareness about the benefits of renewable energy and encourages individuals and businesses to adopt eco-friendly technologies.

7. Innovation and Research: Continued research and development in solar paint technology can lead to improvements in efficiency and affordability, making it an even more viable solution for addressing global energy and climate challenges.

8. Carbon Neutrality: When combined with energy storage solutions, solar paint can contribute to carbon-neutral or even carbon-negative building designs, where the energy generated exceeds consumption.

While solar paint technology holds immense potential, challenges such as efficiency, durability, and scalability need to be addressed. Collaborative efforts among researchers, governments, and industries are essential to accelerate its adoption and maximize its impact in the fight against climate change.

Educating the public about the benefits of solar paint and its role in reducing carbon emissions is crucial for driving widespread adoption and creating a sustainable energy future.

Laura Kaur Separating global irradiation into diffuse and direct components can be achieved using models like the Perez model or other empirical models. Here's a simplified approach to perform this separation without the need for additional estimations:

1. Collect Data: Ensure you have the necessary input data, which includes global irradiation measurements, azimuth angles, zenith angles, and any other location-dependent data.

2. Understand Perez Model: While you mentioned not fully understanding the Perez model, it's a widely used model for this purpose. It's based on empirical relationships and can be implemented once you have a grasp of its equations.

3. Explore Other Models: If you prefer not to estimate values or want a simpler approach, you can explore alternative models that require fewer parameters. One such model is the Erbs model, which is less complex than the Perez model.

4. Utilize Available Software: Various software packages, including Python libraries and MATLAB toolboxes, offer pre-built functions for separating global irradiation into diffuse and direct components using these models. Utilizing these resources can simplify the process.

5. Review Documentation: Consult the documentation or user guides of these software packages for step-by-step instructions on how to use them for the separation task. This will provide you with specific guidance on how to input your data and obtain the desired results.

6. Data Preprocessing: Ensure that your input data is appropriately preprocessed and formatted according to the requirements of the chosen model or software. This may involve units conversion or adjustments for the specific model's input needs.

7. Execute Separation: Once you have prepared your data and understood the model or software, proceed to execute the separation process. This will typically involve running the provided functions or scripts with your input data.

8. Result Analysis: After separation, you will obtain values for diffuse and direct irradiation. Analyze these results to ensure they align with your expectations and the physical characteristics of the location.

9. Validation: If possible, compare the separated values with measured or ground-truth data to validate the accuracy of the separation process. This step helps ensure the reliability of your results.

By following these steps and utilizing available resources, you can separate global irradiation into diffuse and direct components without the need to estimate additional values. The choice of model and software should be based on your specific requirements and data availability.

Dr Abdelsalam Aldawoud thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Shwan Omar Salih Which paper please could you give me the title?

Optimizing the efficiency of solar panels is an area of active research. Here are some techniques that could help improve the power output of a solar system:

· Avoid shadows and dirt: Ensure nothing is blocking your solar panel.

· Adjust Tilt Angle: Set the correct tilt angle for your solar panel.

· Adjust the direction of the solar panel.

· Using an MPPT charge controller: An MPPT charge controller can help maximize solar system efficiency.

· Solar panel cooling: Many factors affect the operation of photovoltaic panels, including external and internal factors. Internal factors can be controlled, such as the surface temperature of the PV. Many cooling systems have been designed and researched to effectively prevent excessive temperature rise and improve efficiency.

· Photovoltaic system optimization: According to research, the main objectives of optimization approaches are to reduce investment, operation and maintenance costs, and emissions to improve system reliability.

​

Jorge Morales Pedraza Thank you so much

Objective functions in PID theory are used as a performance criteria.

The five most common ones are:

- ISE (Integral of the Square Error)

- IAE (Integral of Absolute Magnitude of Error)

- ITSE (Integral of Time multiplied by the Square Error)

- ITAE (Integral of Time multiplied by the Absolute Error)

- MSE (Mean of the Square Error)

As for the code, which program do you prefer?

In Python for instande, you have the easy-to-use "simple-pid" package - https://pypi.org/project/simple-pid/

Thanks a lot for the quick response and the solution.

Abdelsalam Aldawoud

Monocrystalline solar panels are the most efficient type of panel compared to polycrystalline and thin-film options. Monocrystalline solar panels deliver between 15% to 22% efficiency. Crystalline silicon cells are the most widely used and have the highest efficiency, but they are also more expensive and require more energy to produce. Thin-film cells are cheaper and more flexible, but they have lower efficiency and degrade faster. Of the three basic solar panel types monocrystalline, polycrystalline and amorphous monocrystalline is the most efficient in collecting solar energy and therefore somewhat more effective in regions with low sunlight. Monocrystalline solar panels offer better efficiency because they're produced from pure silicon. They have a sleek, black color and produce more power per square foot but are more expensive. Polycrystalline solar panels use multi-crystalline silicon, which results in lower efficiency. Amorphous cells can withstand higher temperatures without output being affected, compared to poly or mono crystalline cells. Amorphous cells perform better in low light conditions compared to even the most efficient monocrystalline panels. Monocrystalline panels are the right choice if you want the highest power output and efficiency, or if you want your solar panels to be less noticeable on your roof. A higher efficiency rating also means you'll need fewer panels to power your home, making mono panels a good choice for roofs with less space. Although some experimental solar cells have achieved efficiencies of close to 50%, most commercial cells are below 30%. Unlike the Carnot efficiency which limits the thermal efficiency of heat engines, the efficiency of solar cells is limited by something called the "band gap energy". Monocrystalline cells are solar cells made from silicon crystallized into a single crystal. Their efficiency is 15%–24%, but their manufacturing is complex and expensive. The temperature influences the efficiency of the photovoltaic cell due to the intrinsic characteristic of the semiconductor material. The efficiency of the solar panels increases when the temperature drops and decreases in high temperatures, as the voltage between the cells drops.

Solar panels are, according to solar.se.com, a sustainable energy source for several reasons:

Several environmental factors can influence the efficiency of solar panels:

These factors should be considered when installing and maintaining solar panels to ensure optimal performance and sustainability.

1. Temperature Coefficient of Voltage (Voc): The open-circuit voltage (Voc) of a solar cell decreases with increasing temperature. This is because higher temperatures cause an increase in the intrinsic carrier concentration of the semiconductor material used in the solar cell. As a result, more electron-hole pairs are generated, leading to a decrease in the voltage. The temperature coefficient of Voc is typically expressed in millivolts per degree Celsius (mV/°C), and it varies depending on the type of solar cell material.

2. Temperature Coefficient of Current (Isc): The short-circuit current (Isc) of a solar cell is also affected by temperature, but its dependence is not as straightforward as Voc. The Isc can increase with temperature up to a certain point, primarily due to improved carrier mobility. However, beyond a certain temperature threshold, the increase in leakage current and other losses can lead to a decrease in Isc.

3. Temperature Coefficient of Power (Pmax): The temperature coefficient of maximum power (Pmax) combines the effects of temperature on both voltage and current. It's a critical parameter because it determines how the overall power output of a solar cell changes with temperature. Generally, Pmax decreases with increasing temperature. The temperature coefficient of Pmax is typically negative and is expressed in percentage change per degree Celsius.

4. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT): To mitigate the adverse effects of temperature on solar cell performance, most PV systems incorporate maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms in their charge controllers or inverters. MPPT continuously adjusts the operating voltage and current of the solar panels to ensure they operate at their maximum power output, taking into account variations in temperature and solar irradiance.

5. Cooling Systems: In some cases, solar panels are equipped with cooling systems to maintain a lower operating temperature. These systems can include passive cooling techniques like heat sinks and active cooling methods such as fans or water cooling. Lowering the panel temperature can help improve overall efficiency.

Hi

You can see this video.

The increasing temperature causes a narrowing of the forbidden gap and a shift of the Fermi energy level toward the centre of the forbidden gap. Both these effects lead to a reduction of the potential barrier in the band diagram of the illuminated PN junction, and thus to a decrease of the photovoltaic voltage.

Therefore, solar radiation level has a direct effect on the panel power. As a result, a decrease in solar radiation level reduces the panel power. On the other hand, there is an inverse proportion between temperature and panel power. In other words, panel power decreases as the ambient temperature increases. The highest output power of PV panel will be produced by a combination of high solar irradiance and low temperature. As illustrated in this figure, the most efficient power production by PV panel was 15.43 % when PV panel temperature was 25 °C at 1000 Wm-2. The open circuit voltage of a PV module varies with cell temperature. As the temperature increases, due to environmental changes or heat generated by internal power dissipation during energy production, the open circuit voltage (Voc) decreases. This in turn reduces the power output. As the solar radiation increases, the power produced will also increase, as shown in Figure 2. At 9.00 am, the solar radiation is the lowest, which is 319.00 W/m 2. While the highest solar radiation that has been recorded is at 1.00 pm, which are 1039.00 W/m 2 and the power produced by PV modules are 398.09 W. Climate change will impact temperature and irradiance and therefore will alter the output capacity of PV systems. PV systems present a negative linear relationship between the energy output and the temperature change while the increase of solar radiation is proportional to the PV energy output. Photovoltaic modules are tested at a temperature of 25 degrees C (STC) about 77 degrees F., and depending on their installed location, heat can reduce output efficiency by 10-25%. As the temperature of the solar panel increases, its output current increases exponentially, while the voltage output is reduced linearly. However, solar power generation is sensitive to climate changes imposing a definite limitation on the stability of solar electricity supply. As, changes in the frequency of cloudy and rainy weathers can substantially affect PV power outputs. The production of hazardous contaminates, water resources pollution, and emissions of air pollutants during the manufacturing process as well as the impact of PV installations on land use are important environmental factors to consider. The increasing temperature causes a narrowing of the forbidden gap and a shift of the Fermi energy level toward the centre of the forbidden gap. Both these effects lead to a reduction of the potential barrier in the band diagram of the illuminated PN junction, and thus to a decrease of the photovoltaic voltage.

GIS is good at estimating the solar energy that will fall on a location throughout the year & day but vegetation that comes and goes, leafs out and sheds, etc is trickier to model.

Not only is wind an abundant and inexhaustible resource, but it also provides electricity without burning any fuel or polluting the air. Wind continues to be the largest source of renewable power in the United States, which helps reduce our reliance on fossil fuels. The use of clean energy sources, such as water, wind, sunlight and nuclear, to generate electricity helps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate climate change. This is because clean energy sources don't emit any greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide, during the electricity generating process. Wind power is a clean and renewable energy source. Wind turbines use blades to collect the wind's kinetic energy. Wind flows over the blades creating lift (similar to the effect on airplane wings), which causes the blades to turn. The blades are connected to a drive shaft that turns an electric generator, which produces (generates) electricity. The wind is a more efficient power source than solar. Wind turbines release less CO2 to the atmosphere. A wind turbine produces 4.64 grams of CO2/1kWh while the solar panel produces 70 grams of CO2/1kWh. Wind power consumes less energy and produces more energy compared to solar panels. Wind and solar power were emerging technologies with a minimal market share back in 2000, but they are now the fastest-growing electricity sources in the US. According to the Solar Energy Industries Association (SEIA), solar power accounts 43% of the capacity added in 2020, while wind power accounts for 38%. Wind is a renewable energy source. Overall, using wind to produce energy has fewer effects on the environment than many other energy sources. Wind turbines do not release emissions that can pollute the air or water and they do not require water for cooling. Wind, solar, and hydroelectric systems generate electricity with no associated air pollution emissions. Geothermal and biomass systems emit some air pollutants, though total air emissions are generally much lower than those of coal- and natural gas-fired power plants. Renewable energy is energy that comes from a source that won't run out. They are natural and self-replenishing, and usually have a low- or zero-carbon footprint. Examples of renewable energy sources include wind power, solar power, bioenergy (organic matter burned as a fuel) and hydroelectric, including tidal energy. Wind and solar energy provide air-quality, public health, and greenhouse gas emission benefits as they reduce reliance on combustion-based electricity generation. In the United States, these benefits vary dramatically by region and over time. Clean energy is the generation of energy that does not produce greenhouse gas emissions. Renewable energy is the generation of energy from sources that can be replenished naturally over time. The differences between the two have different implications for reducing global greenhouse gas emissions. It is possible to supply about 75-80% of US electrical needs. If the system were designed with excess capacity (the 150% case), the US could meet about 90% of its needs with wind and solar power. It all comes down to cost and infrastructure. Ultimately, the biggest hindrance to the development of renewable energy is its cost and logistical barriers. Once the infrastructure for renewable energy sources grows, we will see it take off in popularity and use. Solar energy does not generate waste or contaminate water—an extremely important factor given the scarcity of water. Unlike fossil fuels and nuclear power plants, wind energy has one of the lowest water-consumption footprints, which makes it a key for conserving hydrological resources.

Polycrystalline solar panels are the most popular solar panels in India. They are made up of fragments of silicon crystals. They feature 13% to 15% efficiency. However, its highest watt peak solar panels available in India are the “DeepBlue 3.0“ series. This MonoPERC panel has a 21% efficiency. In India, the available panels' range is 535 to 585 watts. On the residential market, the most efficient solar panels currently available are 22.8% efficient. In general, more efficient panels are possible. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory developed a solar cell with an efficiency of 39.5%, but don't expect to put it on your roof. In India, a typical home uses 260 kWh of electricity per month. Therefore, an average Indian home requires 2.4 kW of solar power or 6 solar panels with 330 watts each. The breakthrough is adding a layer of perovskite, another semiconductor, on top of the silicon layer. This captures blue light from the visible spectrum, while the silicon captures red light, boosting the total light captured overall. Solar cells generally work best at low temperatures. Higher temperatures cause the semiconductor properties to shift, resulting in a slight increase in current, but a much larger decrease in voltage. The temperature influences the efficiency of the photovoltaic cell due to the intrinsic characteristic of the semiconductor material. The efficiency of the solar panels increases when the temperature drops and decreases in high temperatures, as the voltage between the cells drops. The limiting factor in the sustainability of solar energy overall primarily comes from a scarcity in the raw materials required to produce solar technology, the greenhouse gasses emitted during manufacturing, and the impact of panel disposal on the environment. The Shockley–Queisser limit describes the dependence of the solar energy conversion efficiency (η) of an ideal solar cell on the band gap (Eg) of its photovoltaic absorber illuminated at air mass (AM) 1.5 and 25°C. The maximum value of η is 32% for an Eg between 1.1 and 1.5 eV. One of the most effective ways to improve efficiency in carbon-based perovskite cells is to use plasmonic nanoparticles. When exposed to solar energy, metal nanoparticles scatter light, increasing the photocurrent inside the cell and increasing the generation rate of free carriers. Though most commercial panels have efficiencies from 15% to 20%, researchers have developed PV cells with efficiencies approaching 50%.

Solar panel efficiency can be determined by considering various parameters, including the panel's maximum power rating and surface area. Additionally, factors such as open-circuit voltage, short-circuit current, maximum power output, and fill factor can aid in understanding the efficiency of individual solar cells. The temperature influences the efficiency of the photovoltaic cell due to the intrinsic characteristic of the semiconductor material. The efficiency of the solar panels increases when the temperature drops and decreases in high temperatures, as the voltage between the cells drops. Direct recombination, in which light-generated electrons and holes encounter each other, recombine, and emit a photon, reverses the process from which electricity is generated in a solar cell. It is one of the fundamental factors that limit efficiency. To measure efficiency, a solar cell is connected to a calibrated reference cell and an electronic load that varies the voltage and current. The reference cell provides a known value of solar irradiance, while the load simulates the electrical demand. Another approach to boosting efficiency in perovskite solar cells is to improve light management so that less light is lost from the cell. One way to achieve this is by using silicon oxide layers to trap more sunlight and a transparent conducting oxide layer to reduce absorption losses. While solar panel efficiency is generally around 15-20%, solar cell efficiency can reach 42% in some cases. However, unless otherwise stated, the performance of solar cells is measured under laboratory conditions. Monocrystalline solar panels are the most efficient type of panel compared to polycrystalline and thin-film options. Monocrystalline solar panels deliver between 15% to 22% efficiency. The efficiency of solar panels has improved dramatically in recent years, from an average of around 15% conversion of sunlight to usable energy to around 20%. High-efficiency solar panels can reach as much as nearly 23%.

Hydropower is the most efficient method of generating electricity because 95 per cent of the energy of flowing water gets converted into electricity only five per cent of the energy is converted into other forms of energy, such as heat. At present, wind power is the most efficient method of sustainable energy production. The most efficient way to produce electricity at home is with a renewable energy system such as solar or wind power. These systems can generate significant savings over the long term and help to reduce your reliance on nonrenewable sources of energy. Solar energy is clean. It creates no carbon emissions or other heat-trapping “greenhouse” gases. It avoids the environmental damage associated with mining or drilling for fossil fuels. Furthermore, solar energy also uses little to no water, unlike power plants that generate electricity using steam turbines. Fossil energy like coal, lignite, petroleum and natural gas are most common sources of energy. These sources of energy are used to produce electricity, cook food, heat thermal engines etc. LED (Light Emitting Diode) bulbs are the most energy efficient lighting option available, and can therefore save you the most money on your electricity bills. They produce 40-80 lumens per watt, and offer several other benefits, including longevity and brightness. Fossil fuels are the largest sources of energy for electricity generation. The thermal power plant is the most common source of electrical energy in India. The transmission of electricity is more efficient than transporting coal or petroleum over the same distance. Therefore, many thermal power plants are set up near coal or oil fields. Thermal power is the "largest" source of power in India. There are different types of thermal power plants based on the fuel used to generate the steam such as coal, gas, and Diesel, natural gas. About 71% of electricity consumed in India is generated by thermal power plants.Hydropower currently is the largest source of renewable energy in the electricity sector. It relies on generally stable rainfall patterns, and can be negatively impacted by climate-induced droughts or changes to ecosystems which impact rainfall patterns.

While many rooftop solar installation projects have been installed, size of the roof, load bearing capacity are some limitation. There are many micro grid installations here in Bangladesh however serious power generation limits are present and unless higher efficiency, economically viable solar panels are manufactured, these will remain to be severe limitations. As not much significant power is generated from these rooftop installations, on grid connections are not feasible.

You can just search: 'Supplementary data' in the web page and you will find a link to download it.

Good luck!

Dr Jorge Morales Pedraza thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Solar power produces no emissions during generation itself, and life-cycle assessments clearly demonstrate that it has a smaller carbon footprint from "cradle-to-grave" than fossil fuels. One way to know is to use the CO2 emissions per kWh calculator, which tells you the environmental impact of solar power. Experts indicate that the lifetime emissions from solar energy are about 48 grams of carbon per kWh, making it one of the top earth-friendly energy sources since it is renewable. The particulate matter in the air reduces the reach of direct sunlight on solar panels and deposit builds up on panels also reduces power generation capacity. Here are the most common energy sources and the amount of CO2 that's emitted in order to produce them: Solar panels produce 50g of CO2 during manufacturing. Natural gas produces 117 lbs of CO2 per million British thermal units (MMBtu) during extraction and production. Oil (petroleum) produces 160 lbs of CO2 per MMBtu. Fabricating the panels requires caustic chemicals such as sodium hydroxide and hydrofluoric acid, and the process uses water as well as electricity, the production of which emits greenhouse gases. It also creates waste. So, even though solar panels do have a carbon footprint, their emissions simply do not compare to fossil fuel equivalents. And, unlike fossil fuel use, your solar panels really do pay off their carbon footprint while also saving you money. Reduce your carbon footprint - Solar electricity is green renewable energy and doesn't release any harmful carbon dioxide or other pollutants. A typical home solar PV system could save over a tonne and a half of carbon dioxide per year. Renewable energy sources which are available in abundance all around us, provided by the sun, wind, water, waste, and heat from the Earth – are replenished by nature and emit little to no greenhouse gases or pollutants into the air.

Dr Gaurav H Tandon thank you for your contribution to the discussion

Dear friend Prema Hettiarachchi

Well, hello there, my research-savvy friend Prema Hettiarachchi! You've raised a fascinating topic here, and I am ready to dive into the depths of it.

**Advantages:**

1. **Dual Land Use**: Utilizing the water surfaces of freshwater reservoirs for solar panels allows for dual land use, optimizing land resources.

2. **Clean Energy**: Solar power is clean and renewable, reducing the carbon footprint and contributing to sustainable energy generation.

3. **Energy Generation**: It can enhance the energy generation capacity of the region, helping to meet increasing energy demands.

4. **Reduced Evaporation**: Solar panels can reduce evaporation from the reservoir, conserving water resources, which is especially valuable in tropical climates.

**Disadvantages and Adverse Effects:**

1. **Environmental Impact**: Installing solar panels on water bodies can alter the local ecosystem, potentially harming aquatic life and vegetation.

2. **Water Quality**: Panels can affect water quality due to shading, potentially leading to decreased dissolved oxygen levels.

3. **Maintenance Challenges**: Maintenance of panels on water can be more challenging and costly than land-based systems.

4. **Land Use Conflict**: Dual land use can create conflicts between agriculture, recreational activities, and solar energy production.

5. **Algae Growth**: Reduced water circulation under panels can foster algae growth, affecting water quality.

6. **Aesthetic Concerns**: Solar panels might change the aesthetic appeal of the reservoir, which can be an issue in some areas.

7. **Land Rights and Management**: Reservoirs are often managed by government agencies, so private companies might face land rights and management challenges.

**Management Issues:**

1. **Regulations**: Developing a clear regulatory framework to manage land use and water quality is crucial.

2. **Maintenance**: Regular maintenance and cleaning of panels are essential to maximize energy production.

3. **Environmental Impact Assessment**: A comprehensive environmental impact assessment is necessary to minimize harm to local ecosystems.

4. **Community Engagement**: Engaging with local communities and stakeholders is vital to address concerns and ensure project acceptance.

5. **Hybrid Systems**: Consider hybrid systems that combine floating solar with complementary technologies like hydroelectric power generation.

Remember, my passionate researcher Prema Hettiarachchi, the key is to strike a balance between sustainable energy generation and environmental conservation. Each project should be evaluated on a case-by-case basis to address the unique challenges and opportunities of your region.

No, Sun can influence Earth's climate, but it isn't responsible for the warming trend we've seen over recent decades. The Sun is a giver of life; it helps keep the planet warm enough for us to survive. We know subtle changes in Earth's orbit around the Sun are responsible for the comings and goings of the ice ages. A warming of the planet due to an increase in solar irradiance probably results in the release of methane and carbon dioxide from stores in the oceans and icecaps, and these greenhouse gases can then produce additional warming. Generating electricity and heat by burning fossil fuels causes a large chunk of global emissions. Most electricity is still generated by burning coal, oil, or gas, which produces carbon dioxide and nitrous oxide – powerful greenhouse gases that blanket the Earth and trap the sun's heat. The Earth's climate system depends entirely on the Sun for its energy. Solar radiation warms the atmosphere and is fundamental to atmospheric composition, while the distribution of solar heating across the planet produces global wind patterns and contributes to the formation of clouds, storms, and rainfall. Over the course of Earth's existence, volcanic eruptions, fluctuations in solar radiation, tectonic shifts, and even small changes in our orbit have all had observable effects on planetary warming and cooling patterns.Natural forcing that can contribute to climate change include: Solar irradiance changing energy from the sun has affected the temperature of Earth in the past. However, we have not seen anything strong enough to change our climate. These have been caused by many natural factors, including changes in the sun, emissions from volcanoes, variations in Earth's orbit and levels of carbon dioxide (CO2). There are both natural and human-caused greenhouse gases. Natural sources include respiration and decomposition of plants and ocean release of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. Many natural GHGs occur naturally in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide.Greenhouse gases' are crucial to keeping our planet at a suitable temperature for life. Without the natural greenhouse effect, the heat emitted by the Earth would simply pass outwards from the Earth's surface into space and the Earth would have an average temperature of about -20°C.

By employing a solar-powered heating system, farmers can easily save costs incurred on electricity bills. These systems use solar panels that effectively power the temperature control systems as required. Using sunlight to dry crops and grains is one of the oldest applications of solar energy used by farmers. Solar PV systems are employed in the farms to produce the required electricity that is stored in the batteries and used when required. This not only helps in reducing the power consumption from the electricity supply but also saves money for farmers in the long run. Solar energy is commonly used for solar water heaters and house heating. The heat from solar ponds enables the production of chemicals, food, textiles, warm greenhouses, swimming pools, and livestock buildings. Cooking and providing a power source for electronic devices can also be achieved by using solar energy. Solar energy can be used to power irrigation pumps and drip irrigation systems, which can help to reduce water waste and increase crop yields. Greenhouses: Solar energy can be used to power temperature control systems in greenhouses, allowing farmers to grow crops year-round and extend the growing season. The typical examples of direct use of solar energy like greenhouses or tunnel farming for cultivation of crops and vegetables and use of solar dryers for drying agricultural products have been comprehensively discussed. Similarly, the solar powered tubewells, tractors, and lights, etc. Here are some of the advantages of green technology to the environment! Green technology helps reduce energy and water consumption, reduces waste, reduces our carbon footprint, and improves business efficiency by lowering costs while improving the product design and creating new jobs. The top 10 green technology advancements, ranging from advanced solar energy utilization, wind and hydroelectric power, biofuels, water conservation technologies, e-waste recycling, eco-friendly materials, green construction, and electric vehicles to vertical farming, promise to revolutionize various sectors. Sustainable technology is the combination of two complementary ideas. The first is technology that is meant to remedy, improve, or offset carbonization, environmental setbacks, or problems. The second is technology that is produced using green or ecologically responsible materials or processes. Experience with green technologies such as conservation tillage, integrated pest management, enhanced nutrient management, and precision agriculture demonstrates that even when technologies are profitable, barriers to adopting new practices can limit their effectiveness.Crop rotations and manure are used instead to control pests, weeds, and disease. By sequestering carbon into the soil, organic green technology helps to alleviate the consequences of global warming. Organic farming must be done in a balanced manner because it requires less energy and encourages higher biodiversity. As a source of energy, green energy often comes from renewable energy technologies such as solar energy, wind power, geothermal energy, biomass and hydroelectric power.