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Chapter
Feminisms in Social Sciences
Medani P.Bhandari
Abstract
Feminism is a social and political movement that aims to advance gender equal-
ity and challenge the patriarchal power structures that marginalize and oppress
women. Feminist theory has become a significant perspective in the social sciences,
including sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics, and political science.
Feminist theory has made significant contributions to the social sciences, challenging
traditional views of gender, and highlighting the importance of studying women’s
experiences and perspectives. Feminist scholars have provided important insights
into the ways in which gender intersects with other forms of oppression and have
advocated for policies and practices that promote gender equality and social justice.
This chapter is based on desktop research, shows the concept of feminism in social
science domain. The fundamental concept of feminism is the belief in gender equal-
ity and the rejection of patriarchal power structures that oppress and marginalize
women. Feminism is a social, political, and cultural movement that advocates for
the empowerment of women and the recognition of their rights as equal members of
society. This chapter provides the general outlines of feminism in social sciences with
reference to postmodern era and feminism, postmodernism and feminisms, history
of feminist’s theory, major characteristics of feminisms in social science domain,
the founding scholars of feminisms, social science and feminisms theory, sociology
and feminisms contemporary development, environmentalism, and feminism a new
direction of new movement, interconnectedness of environmentalism, feminism, and
its influence on social sciences, the feminist approach to organizational analysis and
the organizational sociological view.
Keywords: feminism, social sciences, sociology, anthropology, psychology, economics,
gender equality, environmentalism, ecofeminism, organizational analysis
1. Introduction
Feminism is a social, political, and cultural movement aimed at achieving gender
equality, challenging, and dismantling gender-based oppression and discrimination,
and advocating for women’s rights on the grounds of social, economic, and political
equality to men. Feminism can encompass a range of beliefs and practices, but at its
core, it seeks to promote women’s empowerment and challenge patriarchal norms and
structures that limit women’s opportunities and choices. Feminism also recognizes
that gender intersects with other social identities, such as race, class, and sexuality,
and seeks to address the unique experiences of women who face multiple forms of
oppression [1–6].
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Feminism is based on the idea that gender is a social construct that has been used
to justify the subordination of women. Feminist theorists argue that gender is not
an innate characteristic but is instead a set of social norms and expectations that are
imposed on individuals based on their sex. These norms and expectations can lead to
gender-based discrimination and inequality in all aspects of life, including education,
employment, healthcare, and politics.
Feminism also recognizes the intersections of gender with other forms of oppres-
sion, such as race, class, and sexuality. Intersectionality is a key concept in feminist
theory, which acknowledges that individuals experience multiple forms of oppression
that cannot be separated from one another [7–11].
The fundamental concept of feminism is the belief in gender equality and the
rejection of patriarchal power structures that oppress women. Feminism recognizes
the importance of challenging social norms and expectations that reinforce gender
inequality, and advocates for policies and practices that promote the empowerment of
women and the recognition of their rights as equal members of society.
1.1 Postmodern era and feminism
Most importantly, feminism approach has been considered mainstream knowledge
in the postmodern era.
The postmodern era is a period that began in the mid-twentieth century and is
characterized by a rejection of the grand narratives of modernism and an emphasis
on the fragmented, complex, and pluralistic nature of contemporary society. In the
postmodern era, there is a recognition that reality is not fixed and objective, but is
instead constructed through language, culture, and social relations.
Postmodernism is a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in response
to the failures of modernism, which was characterized by a belief in rational-
ity, progress, and the ability of science and technology to solve social problems.
Postmodernism challenged these assumptions, arguing that there is no universal truth
or objective reality, and that knowledge and meaning are contingent on historical and
cultural contexts.
In the postmodern era, there is a focus on diversity, difference, and the plurality
of experiences and identities. Postmodernism has influenced a wide range of fields,
including art, literature, architecture, philosophy, sociology, and cultural studies. It
has also been associated with critical theory, feminism, postcolonialism, and other
social and political movements that seek to challenge dominant discourses and power
structures [12–28].
There are many scholars who have played important roles in challenging the
traditional knowledge base system.
Jean-François Lyotard: A philosopher and literary theorist who is known for his
work on the postmodern condition and the fragmentation of knowledge in contempo-
rary society.
Jacques Derrida: A philosopher and literary critic who is known for his develop-
ment of deconstruction, a method of analyzing language that reveals the hidden
assumptions and contradictions of texts.
Michel Foucault: A philosopher and social theorist who is known for his work on
power and knowledge, and for his critique of institutions such as prisons, hospitals,
and mental health facilities.
Donna Haraway: A philosopher and feminist theorist who is known for her work
on cyborgs, animals, and the boundaries between human and non-human entities.
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Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari: Philosophers who are known for their collabora-
tive work on topics such as rhizomes, the body without organs, and the politics of
desire.
These and many other scholars of social science have significant contribution for
postmodern knowledge creation including supporting and empowering the feminism
theory.
1.2 Postmodernism and feminisms
Postmodernism and feminisms share a critical approach to the dominant dis-
courses and power structures of society. Both reject the idea of a fixed, essential
identity, and emphasize the importance of diverse experiences and perspectives.
Feminist postmodernism emerged in the 1980s as a response to the limitations
of traditional feminist theories, which often essentialized women’s experiences and
identities. Feminist postmodernism emphasized the role of language, discourse, and
cultural representation in shaping gender identity and inequality. It argued that gen-
der is not a fixed biological category but is instead a social construct that is constantly
being constructed and reconstructed through cultural practices and discourses
[12,14, 20, 23, 26].
Feminist postmodernism also challenged the idea of a universal female identity,
arguing that women’s experiences are diverse and shaped by intersecting factors such
as race, class, sexuality, and nationality. It emphasized the importance of recognizing
and valuing these differences, and of challenging the power structures that privilege
certain groups over others.
Postmodernism and feminist postmodernism have had a significant impact on
feminist theory and practice, influencing the development of innovative approaches
such as intersectionality, postcolonial feminism, and queer theory. These approaches
emphasize the importance of understanding the complex, multiple, and intersect-
ing ways in which gender, race, class, and other factors shape individual and social
experiences [12–28].
2. History of feminist’s theory
“The history of feminist politics and theory is often talked of as consisting of three
‘waves.’ First-wave feminism is associated with the women’s suffrage movements of the
late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. First-wave feminism was characterized by
a focus on officially mandated inequalities between men and women, such as the legal
barring of women from voting, property rights, employment, equal rights in marriage, and
positions of political power and authority. Second-wave feminism is associated with the
women’s liberation movements of the 1960s and 1970s. While seeing themselves as inheri-
tors of the politics of the first wave which focused primarily on legal obstacles to women’s
rights, second-wave feminists began concentrating on less ‘official’ barriers to gender
equality, addressing issues like sexuality, reproductive rights, women’s roles, and labor in
the home, and patriarchal culture. Finally, what is called third-wave feminism is gener-
ally associated with feminist politics and movements that began in the 1980s and continue
on to today. Third-wave feminism emerged out of a critique of the politics of the second
wave, as many feminists felt that earlier generations had over-generalized the experi-
ences of white, middle-class, heterosexual women and ignored (and even suppressed) the
viewpoints of women of color, the poor, gay, lesbian, and transgender people, and women
Women and Society
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from the non-Western world. Third-wave feminists have critiqued essential or universal
notions of womanhood, and focus on issues of racism, homophobia, and Eurocentrism
as part of their feminist agenda” Patricia Hill Collins [29] (https://routledgesoc.com/
profile/feminist-social-theory Retrieved March 25. 2023). Whereas the Fourth Wave
of Feminism describes the feminist movement that emerged in the late twentieth and
early twenty-first centuries. This wave builds on the achievements of the previous
feminist movements, but also addresses new issues and challenges faced by women
in the contemporary world. The Fourth Wave of Feminism represents a continued
evolution of the feminist movement, with a focus on intersectionality, digital activ-
ism, and an expanded set of issues affecting women and marginalized groups in the
contemporary world.
Feminist theory has a complex and varied history that has evolved over the course
of many centuries. Here is a brief overview of the major historical developments:
The Enlightenment (seventeenth and eighteenth centuries): During this period,
writers such as Mary Wollstonecraft argued for women’s equality and advocated for
their right to education.
First-wave feminism (nineteenth and early twentieth centuries): This movement
focused on women’s suffrage, or the right to vote, and the basic legal rights of women.
Key figures included Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton in the United States
and Emmeline Pankhurst in the United Kingdom. The first-wave feminism movement
focused on achieving legal rights for women, such as the right to vote, property rights,
and reproductive rights. This movement was largely centered in Western Europe and
the United States.
Second-wave feminism (1960s and 1970s): This movement focused on a wider
range of issues, including reproductive rights, workplace discrimination, and sexual
violence. Key figures included Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem, and bell hooks. The
second-wave feminism movement focused on challenging the ways in which gender
inequality was produced and maintained in a range of social and cultural domains,
including the workplace, the home, and popular culture. This movement was global in
scope and influential in shaping the development of feminist theory and activism.
Third-wave feminism (1990s and 2000s): This movement sought to address the
shortcomings of second-wave feminism, particularly its lack of diversity and inclusiv-
ity. Key figures included Audre Lorde, Kimberlé Crenshaw, and Rebecca Walker.
The third-wave feminism movement focused on the intersections of gender with
other forms of social inequality, such as race, class, and sexuality. This movement
emphasized the importance of individual agency and empowerment and sought to
challenge the ways in which gender oppression was experienced and expressed in
diverse and complex ways.
Fourth-wave feminism (2010s and onward): This movement is characterized by
its use of social media and digital platforms to advance feminist causes, as well as its
focus on intersectionality and the experiences of marginalized groups. Key figures
include Malala Yousafzai, Tarana Burke, and Emma Watson. The postmodern and
postcolonial feminisms challenged the idea that there is a single, universal experi-
ence of women’s oppression, and instead emphasized the importance of recognizing
and challenging the ways in which gender inequality is shaped by race, class, and
colonialism.
The intersectional feminisms, which have emerged more recently, seek to under-
stand and challenge the ways in which multiple forms of social inequality, such as
race, class, gender, sexuality, and ability, intersect and shape experiences of oppres-
sion and privilege.
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Throughout these various waves, feminist theory has explored a wide range of
issues, including the gendered nature of power and oppression, the ways in which
gender intersects with race, class, and sexuality, and the impact of feminist move-
ments on society as a whole.
These movements have had a significant impact on shaping societal attitudes
and norms related to gender and gender equality and have helped to advance
the cause of women’s rights and gender equality around the world. Although the
goals and strategies of these movements have evolved over time, they all share a
commitment to challenging and transforming systems of gender inequality and
oppression.
3. Major characteristics of feminisms in social science domain
Feminisms in the social science domain refer to a range of theoretical and politi-
cal perspectives that focus on understanding and addressing gender inequalities in
society. Some of the major characteristics of feminisms in social science include:
Recognition of the social construction of gender: Feminist scholars in the social
sciences argue that gender is not a fixed biological category but rather a social con-
struct that is shaped by cultural and historical factors.
Focus on intersectionality: Feminist social science recognizes the importance of
intersectionality, or the interconnectedness of multiple forms of oppression such as
gender, race, class, sexuality, and ability [29, 30].
Critique of patriarchal power structures: Feminist social science is concerned
with analyzing and challenging patriarchal power structures that perpetuate gender
inequalities.
Emphasis on diversity and inclusivity: Feminist social science seeks to promote
diversity and inclusivity by valuing and centering the experiences and perspectives of
marginalized groups, particularly women and gender minorities [31–33].
Action-oriented: Feminist social science is often action-oriented, seeking to apply
research findings to inform policy and social change efforts that promote gender
equality [34, 35].
Emphasis on reflexivity: Feminist social science recognizes the importance of
reflexivity, or self-awareness, in the research process. This involves critically reflect-
ing on one’s own social location and biases as well as acknowledging the ways in which
power relations shape research [36, 37].
Interdisciplinary approach: Feminist social science draws on multiple disciplines,
including sociology, anthropology, political science, and psychology, to understand
and address gender inequalities in society [38, 39].
4. The founding scholars of feminisms
There is no one single founding scholar of feminisms, as the movement has been
shaped and influenced by numerous thinkers and activists throughout history.
However, some of the key figures in the development of feminist theory and activism
include:
Mary Wollstonecraft: An English writer and philosopher who wrote “A
Vindication of the Rights of Woman” in 1792, arguing that women should have the
same rights and opportunities as men.
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Simone de Beauvoir: French writer, philosopher, and feminist thinker who
lived from 1908 to 1986. She is best known for her book “The Second Sex,” which is
considered a seminal work in feminist theory and is often credited with inspiring the
second wave of feminism. In “The Second Sex,” de Beauvoir argues that women are
not born, but rather made into a subordinate category by society. She suggests that
women have historically been defined in relation to men, and that this has limited
their opportunities and perpetuated gender inequality. She also argues that women
must reject traditional gender roles and work to achieve greater social, economic, and
political equality. De Beauvoir’s work had a significant impact on feminist theory and
the broader feminist movement. She challenged traditional views of femininity
and masculinity, and helped to popularize the idea that gender is a social construct.
She also argued that women must work together to achieve social change, and that
feminist solidarity is crucial to overcome gender inequality. In addition to her work in
feminist theory, de Beauvoir was a prolific writer and philosopher. She wrote novels,
essays, and memoirs, and was a close friend and collaborator of Jean-Paul Sartre. She
also wrote about topics such as existentialism, ethics, and politics, and was widely
regarded as one of the leading intellectuals of her time.
Betty Friedan (1921–2006): An American writer and activist who wrote “The
Feminine Mystique” in 1963, which is often credited with sparking the second wave of
feminism in the United States. Friedan criticized the idea that women’s primary role
was to be wives and mothers and argued for women’s rights to education and employ-
ment. Other works include- It Changed My Life: Writings on the Women’s Movement
(1963); The Second Stage (1981); and The Fountain of Age (1993).
Audre Lorde: An African American poet, essayist, and activist who wrote about
the intersection of race, gender, and sexuality in her work. Lorde was a key figure in
the development of black feminist theory.
Bell Hooks: An African American author, feminist theorist, and cultural critic
who has written extensively on the intersections of race, gender, and class in her
work.
Dorothy Smith was a Canadian sociologist and feminist scholar who made sig-
nificant contributions to the field of sociology through her development of feminist
standpoint theory. She was born on July 6, 1926, and passed away on June 3, 2022.
Smith’s work challenged the traditional and often exclusive perspective of
mainstream sociology, which tended to view the social world from the standpoint
of those in positions of power and authority. Instead, she argued that sociologists
needed to consider the experiences and perspectives of those who are marginalized or
oppressed, particularly women.
Smith’s feminist standpoint theory suggested that the experiences and perspectives
of women are crucial to understanding the social world, and that women’s experi-
ences are shaped by social structures and institutions that perpetuate gender inequal-
ity. She argued that women’s standpoint is not just a matter of personal experience but
is shaped by the broader social context in which they live.
Smith’s work had a significant impact on feminist theory and social research, and she
was an influential figure in the development of feminist sociology. She authored many
books and articles throughout her career, including “The Everyday World as Problematic:
A Feminist Sociology” and “Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People.”
In recognition of her contributions to sociology and feminist theory, Smith was
awarded many prestigious awards throughout her career, including the John Porter
Tradition of Excellence Book Award from the Canadian Sociological Association and
the Jessie Bernard Award from the American Sociological Association.
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Patricia Hill Collins is a sociologist and a prominent scholar in the fields of
race, gender, and social inequality. She was born on May 1, 1948, in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, and is currently a Distinguished University Professor of Sociology at
the University of Maryland, College Park.
Collins is known for her work on intersectionality, which is the idea that differ-
ent forms of social oppression, such as racism, sexism, and classism, intersect and
interact in complex ways to shape individuals’ experiences. She has also written
extensively on the experiences of Black women in the United States and has argued
that understanding the unique experiences and perspectives of Black women is crucial
to developing a comprehensive understanding of social inequality.
Collins has authored numerous influential books and articles throughout her
career, including “Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the
Politics of Empowerment,” which is considered a foundational text in the field of
Black feminist theory. In this work, she argues that Black feminist thought provides a
unique perspective on the world that challenges traditional theories of knowledge and
power.
Collins has received many awards and honors for her contributions to sociol-
ogy and feminist theory, including the W.E.B. Du Bois Career of Distinguished
Scholarship Award from the American Sociological Association and the John
Hope Franklin Award from the American Philosophical Association. She is widely
recognized as a leading scholar in the fields of race, gender, and social inequality,
and her work has had a significant impact on the study of social issues and social
justice.
Judith Butler is a philosopher and gender theorist who has made significant
contributions to feminist and queer theory. She is best known for her work on the
concept of gender performativity, which suggests that gender is not a natural or
fixed characteristic, but rather a socially constructed identity that is created through
repeated performances of gendered behaviors and expressions.
Butler’s work has been influential in challenging traditional notions of gender and
sexuality, and in advocating for the recognition and protection of marginalized iden-
tities. She has also written extensively on topics such as power, violence, and political
resistance, and has been a prominent voice in debates around feminism, queer theory,
and social justice.
One of Butler’s most famous works is the book “Gender Trouble,” which was first
published in 1990. In this book, Butler argues that gender is not an innate or biological
characteristic, but rather a social construct that is constantly reinforced through our
actions and interactions. She suggests that the idea of binary gender categories, such
as male and female, is limiting and oppressive, and that we need to explore alternative
ways of thinking about gender and identity.
Butler’s work has been both celebrated and criticized for its complex and often
challenging ideas. However, her contributions to feminist and queer theory have had a
profound impact on the way we think about gender and identity and have opened up
new avenues for thinking about social justice and political resistance.
Nancy Chodorow: Her most highly acclaimed book, The Reproduction of
Mothering, first published in 1978, has won numerous awards. Chodorow’s more
recent books include Feminism and Psychoanalytic Theory (1989), Femininities,
Masculinities, Sexualities: Freud and Beyond (1994), and The Power of Feelings:
Personal Meaning in Psychoanalysis, Gender, and Culture (1999).
Raewyn Connell (formerly R. W. or Bob Connell): books, including Ruling
Class, Ruling Culture (1977), Class Structure in Australian History (1980), Gender
Women and Society
8
and Power (1987), The Men and the Boys (2000), and Masculinities (1995), Southern
Theory (2007).
Kimberlé Crenshaw: a legal scholar and critical race theorist who is known for
coining the term “intersectionality” and for her work on the intersection of race,
gender, and other forms of identity-based oppression.
Sara Ahmed: a cultural theorist and feminist philosopher who has written on
topics such as queer phenomenology, affect theory, and the politics of diversity.
Angela Davis: a political activist and scholar who has written extensively on issues
related to race, gender, and social justice, and who has been involved in movements
for civil rights and prison abolition.
These scholars and activists have made significant contributions to the develop-
ment of feminisms and have shaped feminist theory and practice in diverse ways.
These are just a few of the many scholars and activists who have contributed to the
development of feminisms throughout history.
5. Social science and feminisms theory
The social sciences, including sociology, psychology, political science, and eco-
nomics, have all been influenced by feminist theory and have in turn influenced the
development of feminist theory.
Feminist theory is an interdisciplinary field of inquiry that seeks to understand
and challenge the ways in which gender inequality and the oppression of women are
produced and maintained in society. Feminist theorists draw on a range of disciplines
and perspectives, including sociology, psychology, political science, economics, and
philosophy, to analyze the ways in which gender intersects with other forms of social
inequality and to develop strategies for challenging and transforming existing power
structures and norms [1–6, 40–44].
In sociology, feminist theory has influenced the study of gender and gender
inequality and has led to the development of new theories and perspectives on gender
and society. For example, feminist theory has challenged the idea that gender is a
natural and biologically determined aspect of identity and has instead emphasized
the social and cultural construction of gender and the ways in which gender is shaped
by power and inequality [45–48].
In psychology, feminist theory has influenced research on gender and the
experiences of women and has led to the development of new theories and
perspectives on gender and the psychology of women. For example, feminist
psychologists have challenged the idea that women are inherently less competent
or less capable than men and have instead emphasized the ways in which gender
stereotypes and gender-based discrimination impact women’s experiences and
opportunities [49, 50].
In political science, feminist theory has influenced research on gender and politics,
and has led to the development of new theories and perspectives on the ways in which
gender shapes and is shaped by political institutions and processes. For example,
feminist political scientists have challenged the idea that politics is a purely male-
dominated domain and have instead emphasized the ways in which women’s political
participation and representation are impacted by gender-based discrimination and
unequal power relations [51].
In economics, feminist theory has influenced research on gender and the economy
and has led to the development of new theories and perspectives on the ways in which
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gender shapes and is shaped by economic processes and institutions. For example,
feminist economists have challenged the idea that the economy is gender-neutral and
have instead emphasized the ways in which women’s economic opportunities and
experiences are shaped by gender-based discrimination and unequal power relations
[52–54].
Overall, feminist theory has had a significant impact on the social sciences and
continues to shape and inform research and thinking in these fields. By challenging
existing assumptions and power structures, feminist theory has provided new and
innovative perspectives on a range of social, cultural, and political issues, and has
helped to advance the cause of gender equality and the empowerment of women
[49,50, 52–54].
6. Sociology and feminisms contemporary development
In contemporary sociology, feminist theory continues to play a significant role in
shaping research and scholarship. Here are some key developments in the intersection
of sociology and feminisms:
Intersectionality: Intersectionality is a key concept in feminist theory that highlights
the ways in which different forms of oppression, such as sexism, racism, and classism,
intersect and shape individuals’ experiences. Contemporary feminist sociology has
continued to explore intersectionality, examining the ways in which different forms
of oppression interact with each other to produce unique experiences of oppression
and privilege [55, 56].
Global feminisms: Feminist sociology has increasingly focused on issues of global-
ization and transnationalism, examining the ways in which gender operates across
national borders and in diverse cultural contexts. This has led to the development of
a variety of “global feminisms,” which seek to address the unique challenges faced by
women in various parts of the world [57, 58].
Queer theory: Queer theory is a theoretical framework that explores the ways in
which gender and sexuality are socially constructed and intersect with other forms of
identity. Feminist sociology has increasingly engaged with queer theory, examining
the ways in which gender and sexuality are fluid and complex and how they intersect
with other forms of identity [59–62].
Political activism: Feminist sociology has continued to be closely connected to
political activism, with many feminist scholars and activists working together to
advocate for gender equality and social justice [63–65]. This has led to a variety of
initiatives and movements, such as the #MeToo movement and the fight for reproduc-
tive rights.
Overall, feminist sociology continues to be an important and dynamic field,
exploring new questions and challenges as they arise and working to create a more
equitable and just society for all.
7. Environmentalism and feminism a new direction of new movement
“Ecological feminism is a feminism which attempts to unite the demands of the
women’s movement with those of the ecological movement in order to bring about a
world and worldview that are not based on socioeconomic and conceptual structures
of domination” [66].
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10
Environmentalism and feminism have been intersecting for many years, and the
relationship between these two movements has been growing stronger in recent years.
The intersection between environmentalism and feminism is often referred to as
ecofeminism, which recognizes the links between environmental degradation and the
oppression of women and other marginalized groups [9, 66, 67].
Ecofeminism argues that the root cause of both environmental degradation and
gender oppression is a dominant culture that values and prioritizes the interests of the
powerful over the needs and well-being of marginalized communities, both human
and non-human. This approach recognizes that environmental issues are not just
technical or scientific problems but are also social and political issues that require
collective action to challenge and transform the existing power structures and norms
[68–73].
One of the key arguments of ecofeminism is that the oppression of women and
the exploitation of the environment are interconnected and mutually reinforcing.
For example, the destruction of the environment can lead to displacement, loss of
traditional livelihoods, and exposure to hazardous chemicals and pollutants, which
disproportionately affect women and other marginalized groups. Additionally,
women have historically played a crucial role in the preservation and management of
natural resources and have often been at the forefront of environmental activism and
advocacy [68, 72].
Ecofeminism provides a new direction for environmental and feminist move-
ments, which recognizes the importance of intersectionality and collective action in
addressing the challenges of environmental degradation and gender oppression. By
acknowledging the links between these two issues, ecofeminism offers a more holistic
and inclusive approach to environmental and social justice and has the potential to
mobilize a wider range of communities and constituencies in the fight for a more just
and sustainable world [68–73].
8. Interconnectedness of environmentalism, feminism, and its influence
on social sciences
Interconnectedness of environmentalism and feminism has given a new direction
and movement on social political, economic, and psychological field especially on
women empowerment, social justice, inequality, and equity in general.
The interconnectedness of environmentalism and feminism has led to the emer-
gence of a new direction in social and political movements that recognize the links
between environmental degradation and gender oppression. Ecofeminism is a theory
and movement that highlights the connections between the domination of nature and
the oppression of women, and the need to challenge and transform the power struc-
tures that sustain both [7–11].
At the heart of ecofeminism is the recognition that the exploitation of the environ-
ment and the oppression of women are interconnected and mutually reinforcing.
The destruction of natural resources can lead to the displacement of marginalized
communities, and exposure to hazardous chemicals and pollutants, which dispro-
portionately affect women and other vulnerable groups. Additionally, women have
historically played a crucial role in the preservation and management of natural
resources and have often been at the forefront of environmental activism and advo-
cacy [68–73].
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Ecofeminism offers a more holistic and inclusive approach to environmental and
social justice, recognizing the importance of intersectionality and collective action in
addressing the challenges of environmental degradation and gender oppression.
In terms of social science and feminism theory, ecofeminism builds on and extends
the insights of earlier feminist theories, such as liberal feminism, Marxist feminism,
and radical feminism. Ecofeminism recognizes the limitations of these earlier theories
in addressing the intersections of gender and environmental issues and offers a more
nuanced and complex approach to understanding the interconnections between
social, political, economic, and ecological systems.
Ecofeminism also draws on the insights of social science disciplines, such as
sociology, anthropology, and geography, to understand the social and cultural dimen-
sions of environmental issues, and the ways in which gender shapes these dynamics.
The theory and movement have also been influenced by developments in ecological
science, such as the recognition of the interdependence of ecosystems and the impor-
tance of biodiversity [9, 66–74].
Ecofeminism offers an analytical overview of the social, political, economic, and
psychological influences of environmental degradation and gender oppression, and
the need for a more holistic and inclusive approach to addressing these challenges.
The theory and movement recognize the interconnectedness of social, economic, and
ecological systems, and the importance of intersectionality and collective action in
achieving a more just and sustainable world.
9. The feminist approach to organizational analysis
The feminist approach to organizational analysis is a critical perspective that
examines gender-based power dynamics in the workplace. It challenges traditional
organizational theories, which have been based on a male-dominated perspective and
have largely ignored the experiences of women in the workplace.
Feminist organizational analysis focuses on the social construction of gender, the
gendered nature of work, and the impact of gendered power relations on organiza-
tional practices. It aims to uncover the ways in which gender shapes organizational
culture, policies, and practices, and how these in turn affect women’s experiences in
the workplace.
One of the key insights of feminist organizational analysis is that gender is not
just an individual characteristic, but a social construct that is created and reinforced
through social interactions and institutional practices. This means that gender is not
simply a matter of biology, but is shaped by cultural norms and expectations, and can
vary across time and place.
Feminist organizational analysis also draws attention to the ways in which
gender intersects with other forms of social inequality, such as race, class, and
sexuality. This intersectionality perspective recognizes that individuals may
experience multiple forms of discrimination and oppression, and that these
intersecting identities can have a compounding effect on their experiences in the
workplace.
Another important aspect of feminist organizational analysis is its focus on chal-
lenging and transforming existing power relations in the workplace. This includes
addressing issues such as the gender pay gap, unequal representation of women in
leadership positions, and sexual harassment and discrimination.
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9.1 The organizational sociological view
Organizational sociology is a subfield of sociology that focuses on the study of
organizations, including their structure, culture, behavior, and social dynamics. It
examines how organizations operate and how they are shaped by social and cultural
factors, as well as the impact of organizations on individuals, groups, and society as a
whole [45, 46, 48, 75–77].
Broadly organizational sociology studies the organizational behavior in social
context including:
• Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI): With a growing awareness of social
justice issues, many organizations are focusing on creating more diverse, equi-
table, and inclusive workplaces. Organizational sociologists are studying how
organizations are implementing DEI policies and programs and the impact of
these initiatives on organizational outcomes and employee well-being.
• Digitalization and technology: The increasing use of digital technologies and
platforms in organizations has significant implications for work and employ-
ment. Organizational sociologists are examining how digitalization is changing
work practices, organizational structure, and the employment relationship.
• Globalization and multinational corporations: Multinational corporations are
becoming increasingly powerful and influential in the global economy, and organi-
zational sociologists are studying their impact on societies and cultures around the
world. They are examining how multinational corporations operate across differ-
ent national contexts, the role of cultural differences in organizational behavior,
and the implications of these factors for organizational strategy and effectiveness.
• Workplace democracy: The idea of workplace democracy, or giving employees
more say in decision-making and governance, is gaining traction in some orga-
nizations. Organizational sociologists are studying the potential benefits and
challenges of workplace democracy, as well as the different models of participa-
tory decision-making in organizations.
• Sustainability and corporate social responsibility: There is growing pres-
sure on organizations to be more environmentally and socially responsible.
Organizational sociologists are examining how organizations are responding
to these pressures, the impact of sustainability initiatives on organizational
outcomes, and the role of organizations in addressing social and environmental
issues more broadly.
9.2 The organizational sociological view on feminist
The organizational sociological view on Feminist approach emphasizes the impor-
tance of gender equality in organizations. This approach recognizes that gender-based
power inequalities exist in many organizational settings and seeks to address these
imbalances through critical analysis and social change. The organizational feminist
approach incorporates the main essence of organizational sociology and beyond that,
searches how, why, what, and in which way these approaches incorporate the gender
perspectives in day-to-day organizations operation.
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From an organizational sociological perspective, Feminist approach can have
significant implications for organizational behavior and outcomes. The approach
challenges traditional gender roles and stereotypes, recognizing that gender is a social
construct that is created and reinforced through cultural norms and practices. It
emphasizes the importance of creating gender-inclusive organizational cultures that
promote diversity, equity, and inclusion.
Feminist approach also emphasizes the importance of addressing structural barriers to
gender equality in organizations. This includes issues such as the gender pay gap, unequal
representation of women in leadership positions, and sexual harassment and discrimina-
tion. Feminist scholars argue that these barriers are not simply individual problems, but are
deeply embedded in organizational structures and practices, requiring systemic change.
Furthermore, Feminist approach recognizes the intersectionality of gender with other
forms of social inequality, such as race, class, and sexuality. It recognizes that individuals
may experience multiple forms of discrimination and oppression, and that these inter-
secting identities can have a compounding effect on their experiences in the workplace.
Overall, the organizational sociological view on Feminist approach highlights the
importance of creating gender-inclusive organizations that promote diversity, equity,
and inclusion. By challenging traditional gender roles and stereotypes and addressing
structural barriers to gender equality, it opens up new possibilities for creating more
equitable and just organizational cultures.
Within the feminist organizational sociological view, Arlene Daniels 1975:349 states
that “The women’s movement contributes far more to sociology than a passing interest
would. The development of a feminist perspective in sociology offers an important con-
tribution to the sociology of knowledge. And through this contribution, we are forced
to rethink the structure and organization of sociological theory in all the traditional
fields of theory and empirical research” (as cited by [78]). Daniels captures the notion
of feminist movements, which I think presents a major turn, not only to change the
directions women face in the twentieth century onwards but also to provide a ground
for the development of feminist scholarship. Adding to this notion, Tracy, and Thorne
[79] brings an important account of how sociology developed by the privileged west-
ern, white, upper-middle-class, straight men (page 306). This hegemony of the male
began to be challenged; however, it was not a strong stand until the feminist move-
ments began at an organized level. The foundation developed through the first wave of
feminist movements. The first wave had influence on the women’s stand to some extent;
however formally this stand became more visible only in the 1960s. Since then, various
feminist scholars have challenged the one-sided view of society (privileged western,
white, upper-middle-class, straight men), including postmodern thinkers.
I agree that the feminist movement has made a significant contribution to soci-
ology, particularly in terms of developing a feminist perspective that challenges
traditional sociological theory and research methods. The feminist movement has
also played a critical role in bringing attention to issues of gender inequality and
discrimination, which has led to greater awareness and understanding of these issues
within the field of sociology. It is important to recognize the limitations of traditional
sociological theory and research, which has been shaped by the perspectives of
privileged western, white, upper-middle-class, straight men. By incorporating diverse
perspectives and experiences, including those of women and marginalized groups, we
can create a more inclusive and accurate understanding of society.
This challenge brought a new way to examine society. Academicians began to
examine society more openly and flexibly, which helped to develop new thoughts
and theories relating to feminism, racism, etc. Within sociology, scholars began
Women and Society
14
to see society deeply through feminist perspectives1 (Dorothy Smith, Marjorie
DeVault, Gisela Bock, and Susan James). Organizational sociology has developed
new perspectives (rational, natural, and open system (primarily) and environmental,
demographic, ecological, etc., more recently). At first, the women’s standpoint in the
organization was not much focused upon, as discourse dealt more often with women’s
freedom as individuals as the feminisms movement began to examine the women’s
stand in every sector of social life including formal and informal social organizations,
scholars began to see the women’s role in organizational structure. Several authors
in feminist scholars have contributed to organizational theory development. In this
essay, I will only focus on Martha Calas and Linda Smircich’s contribution to organi-
zational theory building. They primarily examine women’s standing in organizational
management and apply a postmodern perspective to analyze the organization based
on the perspectives developed by Michel Foucault, Jurgen Habermas, Jacques Derrida,
Jurgen Habermas, etc.
Martha Calas and Linda Smircich state that organization theories—once they
are presented as knowledge—guide organizational participants in their efforts to
understand and control organizations. In this sense organizational scientists “make”
organizations as much as we study them … Thus, having a socially conscious organi-
zational practice may depend first on having a more socially conscious organizational
scholarship ([80], pp. 223, 234).
These authors’ approach to organization study is particularly based on postmod-
ern notions of thought. They analyze organizations from various perspectives and
provide a detailed account of the functionalist liberal way to postmodern power
dynamism. I think Foucault’s notion of power politics and social change through
knowledge is a relevant ground for them to examine organizational dynamism.
Because of the changing faces of organizations within modern neo-liberal socio-
economic scenarios, it is hard to develop universal principles for organizational
management. Calás and Smircich’s analysis goes beyond traditional sociological
scholarship which was silent about women’s standing and roles in the organization
and elaborates on how women are ignored, or at least passed over, in organizational
power politics. Another aspect they have analyzed is the impact of colonialism on the
developing world’s organizations. In the following paragraphs, I will examine how
these two authors view feminism in organizational management and what they have
contributed to organizational theory development.
I agree that the authors’ approach to organizational study is heavily influenced
by postmodern thought, particularly Foucault’s notion of power politics and social
change through knowledge. They provide a detailed analysis of organizational
1 “A vision of feminist social justice emerges in the writings of contemporary American women writers
Toni Morrison, Joy Harjo, Barbara Kingsolver, and Adrienne Rich. Their collective bodies of work envision
a world that does not devalue and separate people, a world connected to ideals of justice grounded in the
interrelationships of words and deeds. These writers argue that we need to create a new way of seeing and
interacting with the world around us, recognizing our individual responsibilities for creating better com-
munities, questioning government actions, and seeking, above all, a society that sustains people regardless
of gender, race, class, ethnicity, sexuality, or access to resources. As such, these writers variously articulate
what we propose as a feminist vision of justice—one which asserts that interdependence, responsibility,
respect for and relationship with the environment, and an ethics of care are the foundation for a more
reasoned and reasonable practice of justice” Riley Jeannette; Torrens Kathleen; Krumholz Susan (2005),
Contemporary feminist writers: envisioning a just world, Contemporary Justice Review, Volume 8, Number
1, March 2005, pp. 91–106(16).
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dynamics, which moves beyond traditional sociological scholarship and highlights the
role of women and marginalized groups in organizational power politics.
Calás and Smircich’s analysis of feminism in organizational management is an
important contribution to the development of organizational theory. They argue that
traditional management theories are based on a functionalist liberal perspective that
ignores the role of gender and other forms of diversity in organizational dynamics.
They show how women are often excluded from positions of power in organizations
and how this exclusion is perpetuated by organizational structures and cultural
norms.
Furthermore, Calás and Smircich highlight the impact of colonialism on the
developing world’s organizations, which often perpetuate neocolonial power dynam-
ics. They show how organizations in the developing world are often organized around
Western ideals of management and ignore local cultural values and practices.
Overall, Calás and Smircich’s analysis is an important contribution to the develop-
ment of organizational theory. They provide a critical perspective that challenges
traditional management theories and highlights the importance of diversity in orga-
nizational dynamics. Their work also demonstrates the importance of understanding
the impact of historical and cultural contexts on organizational dynamics.
Calás and Smircich [81] state that the word “feminism” cannot contain the notion
of the strength of the feminist theory, because it includes several perspectives, hence
it should be “feminisms.” This minute correction encapsulates the seriousness of
their stand. Another point they state is that feminist theories go beyond ‘women’s
issues’ where they examine feminisms as critical and political issues, which have been
embedded in society since earliest times and can be seen in every aspect of social,
economic, and political spheres. They argue that feminist theorists should situate
themselves as a part of any project “in research” to articulate the real grounds of ten-
sion. Authors are not satisfied with the existing theory of feminism which according
to them are not necessarily in sequential order. They state that theories of feminism
built on, responded to, and changed as a result of different dialogs—boundaries
between them are “blurry and blurring.” They look into existing organizational
theories through feminist perspectives and evaluate how feminisms contribute to
organizational theory building in the context of existing liberal, radical, psycho-
analytic, Marxist, socialist, poststructuralist/ postmodern, and third world/(post)
colonial perspectives.
Calás and Smircich [81] explain each of these categories, which provide an
important basis for how organizations can be analyzed and explained. The following
paragraphs give a brief account of such points, developed by Calás and Smircich,
which can be used in studying social organizations. Similarly, their liberal perspective
is based on the functionalist/positivist approach, which mostly examines sex and
gender as a variable, not a framework for organizational analysis. At the individual
and psychological level, this approach examines the sex and gender differences in lead-
ership, power, job stress, satisfaction, organizational commitment, sex stereotypes,
androgyny, recruitment, selection, and performance appraisal. It also examines the
glass ceiling, organizational demography, career building, and social networks and
evaluates whether organizations provide equal opportunity and take affirmative
action without discrimination against the women workers in the organizations. Calás
and Smircich are analyzing the situation of women in organizational management
around 1996, and where women stand more than ten years later is not presently clear.
Likewise, the radical feminist approach uses case studies and ethnographies to
examine organizations, and search for innovative ideas of alternative organizations
Women and Society
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that may arise for the creation of “woman space.” Calás and Smircich [81] illustrate
Koen’s five alternatives to increase women’s role in organizations such as participa-
tory decision-making, rotating leadership, flexible and interactive job designs, and
equitable distribution of income, interpersonal and political accountability. However,
the question is whether it is possible in the real ground to apply these principles or not.
Here questions arise, such as who heads the organization for whose interest? While
most organizations still operate with the traditional functional system of governance,
whether this new radical approach can take a forward step? These authors are silent
about the implementation part. Another approach they reveal is psychoanalytic. Here,
they state that organizational study should examine whether women have equal advan-
tages in the organization or not, in terms of leadership and teamwork capabilities. This
approach “considers the consequences of women’s different psychosexual development
for their roles in organization and management” ([81], page 224). The psychoanalytic
aspects of the organizational study have been little considered in practice. Many
scholars have analyzed organizational behavior; however, they have seldom adequately
represented the essential differences governing women’s standpoint and roles.
Calás and Smircich [81] next elaborate on the Marxist approach, where they criticize
capitalism and patriarchy together: “work organizations are important sites for analyz-
ing the ongoing reproduction of sex/gender inequality as they expose the intersections
of patriarchy and capitalism” ([81], p. 226). They state that the socialist approach to
organizational research examines the case studies of “women in the organization.” In this
approach organization studies do not distinguish individuals from private and public life:
“families and societies are mutually constituted through gender relations” ([81], p. 227).
This approach is opposite to Max Weber’s notion of the bureaucratic model. As Kilduff
and Mehra note: “Feminist postmodern researchers seek to represent women as subjects
rather than objects and to give voice to the narratives of those who violate what Cassell [82]
referred to as the “principles of the incarnate social order” (Kilduff and Mehra, p. 472).
However, traditional bureaucratic expositions reject this notion. Feminist scholars criticize
the traditional organizational model because it focuses on power in the hierarchical order
which is silent about the women’s stand in the decision-making process. I think an alterna-
tive model can be proposed based on dialectical classification (in terms of gender, sex,
race, ethnicity, and country of origin) and where organizations can be analyzed in the
context of sex/gender, north, and south, or as a power struggle.
Calás and Smircich further explore the subject from the poststructuralist/post-
modern perspective. This approach is based on power relationships (as Foucault
illustrates). They state that postmodern feminist ethnography “subverts many images
about what it is to be a gendered self-belonging to particular ethnic groups within par-
ticular life circumstances; as well as what counts as theory and where the boundary is
between the empirical and the theoretical” ([81], p. 231) and note poststructuralist
study of “secretaries as a social group and their discursive constructions in the day-to-
day relationships of power” ([81], p. 231). Calás and Smircich’s postmodern approach
examines women’s role in the organization in terms of power politics. In the bureau-
cratic web, power is considered a major aspect to manage the operation of the orga-
nization. In this context, to study organizations from any perspective, it is important
to see how the organization is structured and who makes the decisions. The authors
propose a final approach, the study of the third world’s perspective, which is still an
innovative approach that focuses on how the organization or agency formed and how
knowledge is created within it. The western scholars dominate organizational study.
Scholars are silent about the developing world situation on “how organizations are
created, operated, and how they function.”
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Another silent feature is the changing face of the developing world’s organizations
in the postcolonialism condition. Calás and Smircich highlight this issue and state that
knowledge developed by third world women is still not for them (as I have observed,
too often the benefits of financial and another aid benefit disproportionally the donor
country rather than the recipient). Chandra Mohanty [83] examines how western
eyes see women of color in the United States. She states “I would like to suggest that
the feminist writings I analyze here discursively colonize the material and historical
heterogeneities of the lives of women in the third world, thereby producing/ repre-
senting a composite, singular ‘third-world woman’ - an image which appears arbi-
trarily constructed but carries with it the authorizing signature of western humanist
discourse” ([83], p. 63). Her focus was to see how third world women are examined
from western eyes. She argues that the third world is facing western hegemony in
many ways. Mohanty’s notion is valid even to propose alternatives in the feminist dis-
courses. This sector needs to be examined more deeply through a comparative study
of how southern women are changing their stand in society. Women’s participation
in the decision-making process is limited. Calás and Smircich insist that the western
world needs to explore more about women’s role in the southern context.
Calás and Smircich are considered feminist and postmodern organizational theo-
rists (Joanna [84]). They examine organizations in two major frames (1) feminisms
and (2) modernism and postmodernism. From the feminisms perspective, they bring
the notion of how identity makes difference in organizations2 due to sex, class, and
culture. The identity issue not only applies in the organizational setting but equally
works with other social behavior. In the organizational setting, Calás and Smircich
bring three basic points about identity i.e. it constitutes a racial term and condition of
employment, it is a form of race-plus discrimination, and it reflects racial stereotyping.
The question arises, then, how to address such an issue. Here the authors lack clarity.
It is worthwhile to evaluate what Calás and Smircich have added to organizational
theory. In this context, Joanna Brewis’s [84] summary of Calás and Smircich’s orga-
nizational theory is useful to quote.3 Calás and Smircich present a valid argument to
2 In their article “Identity Performance,” Calás and Smircich state “A person’s experiences with and
vulnerability to discrimination is based not just on a status marker or difference (call this a person’s status
identity) but also on the choices that person makes about how to present her difference (call this a person’s
performance identity)” Everyone performs identity. Though we may not recognize that we are doing it, by
making choices about what we wear, how we talk, how we walk, and how we structure a conversation…we
are performing identity (ies) Different intersections of identities can bring varying amounts of privilege
and oppression. It is not addictive but is contextual, relational, and historical. For instance, we do not try
to determine who is oppressed more: an able-bodied upper-class, black gay man or a working-class white
woman that uses a wheelchair… (71).
3 Joanna Brewis states “(1) revealing ‘the inner workings and assumptive basis’ ([85]: 649) of existing
organization theory, identifying the arbitrary discursive limitations within which it operates; (2) focusing
on the fixing of meaning in organization theory and therefore on how our scholarship represents some
phenomena, interests and groups and marginalizes others (while implicitly or explicitly making much
more universalist claims); (3) seeking to make space for non-traditional voices in organization theory,
whilst being aware of the difficulties in attempting to speak for these Others; (4) disavowing notions of
enduring truths about organizations; (5) acknowledging the ‘real-world’ power of organization theory and
considering how it might best be undertaken; (6) creating localized, temporary and subjective accounts
of organizations which are sensitive to how they ‘realize’ their subject matter; and (7) acknowledging that
writing on organizations exists to be read, and that the author is ‘just one interpreter among other readers’”
(1999: 653 as cited from [84], p. 80).
Women and Society
18
apply postmodern perspectives in the organizational study (see Endnote 23). I am not
a fan of the postmodern approach, but in researching the place where women stand in
organizations, their points provide some assistance.
In the context of the postmodern approach to organizational research, Foucault’s
power dynamism is the major ground for Calás and Smircich. However, the postmod-
ern approach4 itself is not universally accepted in organizational research. Calás and
Smircich [81] advocate postmodern thought, in their words: “Insofar as postmodern
perspectives allow for questioning conventional approaches to theory development,
the argument goes; they provide incisive analyses showing the inner workings and
assumptive basis of those theories. At the same time, however, the elusiveness of
theory under postmodern premises prevents those who articulate postmodern per-
spectives from theorizing other, alternative views, because they do not have any ‘solid
ground’ from which to speak” ([81], p. 649).
Foucault’s power dynamics are a major ground for feminist postmodern approach
to organizational research. Their work challenges traditional approaches to theory
development and highlights the importance of questioning the assumptions that
underlie conventional theories.
However, I see the postmodern approach to organizational research is not univer-
sally accepted. Some critics argue that the elusiveness of theory under postmodern
premises makes it difficult to develop coherent and testable hypotheses. Moreover, the
postmodern approach has been criticized for being overly skeptical and rejecting the
possibility of objective truth.
Despite these criticisms, I believe that the postmodern approach has made
an important contribution to organizational research by challenging traditional
assumptions and providing new insights into the complexities of organizational
dynamics. The postmodern approach encourages researchers to examine how power
is constructed and contested in organizations, and to question dominant narratives
about organizational life [12–28]. While the postmodern approach may not provide
a single, objective truth about organizational dynamics, it can help us to develop a
more nuanced and critical understanding of the social and cultural factors that shape
organizational life.
Overall, the feminist approach to organizational analysis offers a valuable frame-
work for understanding and addressing gender-based inequalities in the workplace.
By highlighting the gendered nature of organizational practices and challenging
traditional theories and assumptions, it opens up new possibilities for creating more
equitable and inclusive organizations.
10. Conclusion
In conclusion, the study of feminisms in social sciences has evolved significantly
over the years and has contributed to the development of critical approaches to
4 Kilduff; Mehra state “Within the social sciences in general, the specter of postmodernism has aroused
widespread anxiety. Postmodernism has been viewed as an enterprise that calls for the death of all scientific
inquiry; the end of all new knowledge; the dissolution of any standards that may be used to judge one
theory against another; a banishment into utter relativism wherein a clamor of fragmented and contentious
voices reigns” (see Pauline Rosenau’s 1992 balanced review of these concerns and Stanley Fish’s [I9961
recent discussion of misunderstandings of postmodernism) (p. 454). Calás and Smircich [86] have a
slightly different perspective than what Kilduff; Mehra have highlighted.
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understanding society and social issues. The postmodern era and feminist postmod-
ernism have played a significant role in shaping contemporary feminist theory and
practice, emphasizing the importance of recognizing diversity and difference in
experiences and identities.
This chapter has provided a comprehensive overview of feminism in social sci-
ences, covering a broad range of topics from the history of feminist theory to contem-
porary developments in sociology and environmentalism. The major characteristics
of feminism in social science and its impact on organizational analysis were also
highlighted, as well as the significant role of founding scholars in shaping feminist
discourse.
Feminisms in social sciences have also influenced the development of novel
approaches to understanding organizational structures, environmental issues, and
political and social movements. By challenging traditional male-centric knowledge
bases and power structures, feminisms have opened up new avenues of inquiry and
have provided important insights into the complexities of social life.
Moreover, the chapter emphasizes the interconnectedness of environmentalism,
feminism, and their influence on social sciences. The emergence of eco-feminism as a
new direction for the feminist movement is a significant development that highlights
the importance of recognizing the interdependence of gender, social justice, and the
environment.
Overall, this chapter demonstrates the ongoing evolution of feminist thought in
social sciences and the significant contributions it has made to our understanding of
gender, society, and the environment. As we continue to explore new directions in
feminist theory and research, it is clear that the intersectionality of these fields will
continue to shape our understanding of the world around us.
It is important to recognize the value and significance of feminist theories and
approaches in understanding social issues and addressing inequalities. By incorporat-
ing feminist perspectives into our work, we can better understand the diverse experi-
ences and perspectives of those we work with, and work toward creating more just
and equitable societies.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank my wife Prajita Bhandari and daughter Manaslu Bhandari,
giving insight of what is the meaning of being women in the patriarchal society. My
mother Heema Devi Bhandari who always remain suppressed in the family has differ-
ent story. I think listening to the experiences and perspectives of own circumstance
is an important part of understanding the ways in which gender inequality operates
in our society. By being open to their insights and learning from them, we can help to
create a more inclusive and equitable world for all.
Women and Society
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Author details
Medani P.Bhandari1,2,3
1 Akamai University, USA
2 Sumy State University, Ukraine
3 Atlantic State Legal Foundation, USA
*Address all correspondence to: [email protected]om
© 2023 The Author(s). Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0),
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided
the original work is properly cited.
Feminisms in Social Sciences
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.111652
21
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