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Kalu et al.: The biology of history and developmental trends: A review.
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QUANTUM JOURNAL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES 3(1): 39-54.
eISSN: 2785-8243
www.qjmhs.com
THE BIOLOGY OF HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENTAL TRENDS:
A REVIEW
UDOSEN, I. E.1 – KALU, U.2 – OGBONNA, C. S.3 – IBEMENUGA, K. N.4 – ACHIMOWICZ, J. Z.5 –
MALEBE, P.6 – IWUJI, S.7 – OZURUMBA-DWIGHT, L. N.8*
1 Department of Biological sciences, Federal Polytechnic Bauchi, Bauchi State, Nigeria.
2 Department of Biology, Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education AIFCE, Imo State, Nigeria.
3 Medical Sciences Division, Northern Ontario Medical School, Ontario Canada.
4 Department of Biological sciences, Chukwuemeka Odimegwu Ojukwu State University COOU
Uli Campus, Anambra State, Nigeria.
5 Biology and Neuroscience, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland.
6 Science Initiative Group, Institute of Advanced Science IAS, Princeton area, New Jersey,
United States.
7 Department of Biomedical Technology, Federal University of Technology Owerri, Imo State,
Nigeria.
8 The Open University, Milton Keynes, United Kingdom.
*Corresponding author
e-mail: leon_ozurumba[at]yahoo.com
(Received 15th January 2024; accepted 28th March 2024)
Abstract. The history of Biology at its earliest periods cannot be described without mentioning the roles
played by Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen and, Theophrastus in ancient Greco-Roman world, and Leonardo
DaVinci in Italy among others, who did studies that helped ignite and consequently shape the early
periods of the study of Biology as a field of natural science. This underwent progress in growth,
developments of new and advanced tools, and methods in its study. It enhanced emergence of the era of
seeking to understand life much better from the cellular and sub-cellular levels. Biology has grown over
the scores of decades from mare study of organisms in their gross structure and functions. This was
accompanied with correlating them with functions that are observed into seeking to understand these
organisms at deeper perspectives from their molecules and ultra-structures, such as through emerged
fields like Molecular Biology, Metabolomics and Synthetic Biology and Cell Biology)features. It has
opened up deeper insights to support better understanding of life features. The resultant effects have been
emergence of new fields under Biology, using advanced techniques to study life. These has supported
biological investigations with improved drugs, varieties of crops and animals, industrial bio-products like
enzymes, hormones, bio-polymers that are more environmentally friendly and more robust ways to study
our ecosystem and tackle emerging environmental problems. In this review we present its historical
overview, developments are presented to provide an overview for trends in biology over the ages.
Keywords: biology, molecular biology, bioinformatics, computational biology, synthetic biology
Introduction
It is difficult to pinpoint the precise moment when the first notions of Biology as a
formal field of study began, but several schools of thought in biology have attributed
this to the Aristotles era of study which dates back to a period between 384-322 BC
Kalu et al.: The biology of history and developmental trends: A review.
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QUANTUM JOURNAL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES 3(1): 39-54.
eISSN: 2785-8243
www.qjmhs.com
(Morange, 2021; Dunn, 2016). Aristotle’s studies encompassed the entire world of
living things as many of his descriptions and classifications remain sound today,
although he was not a physician, it exerted profound influence on medicine as well for
the next 2000 years (Dunn, 2016). Aristotle is regarded as a key figure in earliest
development of Biology (Morange, 2021; Humagain, 2017; Dunn, 2016). Biology is a
science that studies life from the most microscopic beings to the macroscopic flora and
fauna life forms of living things. In recent developments, biological scientists have
acquired knowledge and skills to deep-sequence, read, analyze and annotate genes and
genomes of living things; and moved beyond this into editing existing genomes and
stitching pieced of DNAs into an assembly to create new strains of species and chassis
design-build-test synthetic cells. The discovery of the electron in 1897 (Squires, 1997;
Thomson, 1897) marked the beginning of a major turning point in the history of science.
This now enables efficient and robust use of increasing large volume of data for inquiry,
insights, elucidations, discoveries and wide range applications that supports healthcare
(for therapeutic discoveries and innovative life support systems), industry, agriculture
(to increase yields and in disease controls), environmental management (bio-
remediation, eco-friendly environment and protection of rare species) and space
explorations. The life sciences have been in a midst of historical period analogous to the
20th century in the physical sciences. This has been harnessed through development of
electron microscope in scientific discoveries. Biology, physics and chemistry use matter
(of small sizes) within life organizational frames, such as molecules, micro-organelles
and other forms of very minute cell and tissue inclusions to study and tackle issues that
help promote life on earth.
Modern biology has witnessed the entry of systems biology and synthetic biology
into the framework of biology is contributing to science of human and animal health
care, and environmental management. They have brought in synergized collaborative
inputs of fundamental biology, bioinformatics, computer science, chemistry, physics
and engineering- tackling life related tasks through developed robust predictive indices.
Systems biology takes into account the interactions of key molecular elements such as
DNA, RNA (ribonucleic acid), proteins and cells with respect to one another and
(complimentarily) integrated with knowledge and insights from computer science, as
the introduction of high-throughput molecular biology techniques contributed to system
biology (Kirschner, 2005) such as linked genetic diversity and biological mechanisms.
Synthetic biology is an emerging field of biology. It uses data generated from
investigations in biological experiments, more-so from molecular biology and
biotechnology based research data, to design synthetic cells and associated circuits to
perform the role of cells that can now synthesize bio-molecules like enzymes,
hormones, key proteins that support metabolic events in the human body for improved
health and in bio-manufacturing processes that make better and more environmentally
friendly bio-products like bio-fuels.
Biology has received impact from the emergence of bioinformatics and
metabolomics. Bioinformatics is a field that generates and uses big data to analyze
complex s concepts and issues of problems to life in human health, and life. For
instance, Bioinformatics based tools that are run with developed bioinformatics
software like BLAST, SIFT, and Polyphen, which has greatly aided in discovering
biomarkers for diseases like cancer, neurodegenerative diseases, and for drug
discoveries. Also of note is that in bioinformatics we look at how we can efficiently
store, annotate, search and compare information from Biological measurements and
Kalu et al.: The biology of history and developmental trends: A review.
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QUANTUM JOURNAL OF MEDICAL AND HEALTH SCIENCES 3(1): 39-54.
eISSN: 2785-8243
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observations. The transformation of biology has involved the fusion of molecular
principles and concepts with those of other disciplines that includes physics, structural
chemistry and computational biology (Morange, 2021; Tanghe, 2020). This has enabled
developments that produced human genome sequencing, emergence of synthetic
biology, systems biology and epigenetics. Kay (2000) remarked that for those who
havent noticed, genetics make ample use of communication concepts and imagery;
genes are information, with DNA as a language, genome an encyclopedia, and
organisms are genetic communication systems. This brings to fore, how molecular
biology and molecular genetics are transforming biology, enlightening biologists and
bio-related scientists, making significant inputs that are contributing to tackling
problems in human health, agriculture, veterinary animal life and in our ecosystem as
now done through molecular ecology, an entry to support environmental management
and ecosystem sustenance.
We have witnessed the introduction of computational biology which uses biological
data to develop algorithms or models and unravels the relationship between them, which
systems biology engages to tackle problems for translational benefit. These models can
describe what biological tasks are carried out by particular nucleic acid or peptide
sequences, and how changes in cell organization influence cell behavior. Over the
scores of decades, the scope of biology has emerged with a broader, deeper and more
intricate framework that has gone beyond descriptive studies, though this is still
necessary in some aspects of knowledge. Biology has developed from being a
descriptive science, progressing through introduction of cellular and molecular level
studies to make us understand living things and the environment better. Then further
into combing molecular data with deep learning attributes digging deeper into obtaining
big dada, retrospectively mining past data and combining with present day data in big
sizes, building algorithms that are obtained from trained data sets and seeking to solve
problems and challenges previously unknown to us. Very few reviews have ventured
into the biology space to provide us with historical and developmental trends in biology
and synergized.
ObjectIves of the study
The objective of the study are include: (1) to discuss trends briefly from its history
onto present day developments in biology; (2) to provide applications from emerging
fields of biology; and (3) to connect the synergy between biology and other fields in the
physical sciences, agriculture, medicine and environmental science.
Discussion
Typical contributions from specific fields to biology to developmental trends
Plant and animal genetics as well as molecular biology
A study has generated the first genomic atlas for global wheat improvement.
November 2020. The study engaged sequences of genomes of 15 wheat varieties around
the world (CIMMYT, 2020; Walkowiak, et al 2020). One of its benefits was that the
size and complexity of the wheat genome coupled to lack of genome assembly data for
multiple wheat lines, has made it difficult to be probed and used to improve wheat
production and quality as it has been achieved for several other crops (CIMMYT Web
Portal, 2020). This study is one of the proofs of the benefits that come from synergistic
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use and applications of molecular biology, molecular genetics, and bioinformatics to
support Agricultural productions. Molecular biology has been one of the key drivers of
emerging developmental trends in biology (Ozurumba-Dwight et al., 2023), which has
supported tackling of problems facing the global community and periodically as
required, engaging collaborative tools from some other life and physical science
subjects.
Genome-wide screens are another techniques used in integrated omics to understand
host-pathogen interactions, leading to production of significant, high-quality data sets
that can be utilized to determine the genes that are involved in certain processes (such as
the tool TraDIS (Transposoon directed insertion-site sequencing used to identify genes
essential for bacteria survival. Molecular biology and genetics has witnessed use of
quantum for genomics analysis for detecting and quantifications of nucleic acid content
in bio-specimens (Cordier et al., 2022), providing options that can be explored in
biological and medical investigations. Quantum aided studies have emerged in genomic
transcriptomics with applications in diagnostics. Investigations of regulatory genes
associated with oogenesis have been exposited by Saha and Lekhotia (2022).
Bioinformatics and coimputational biology
The foundations of bioinformatics were laid in the early 1960s with the application
of computational methods to protein sequence analysis (notably de novo sequence
assembly, biological sequence databases and substitution models), coupled with
increasing amount of bioinformatics tools (Gauthier et al., 2019). Big data in biological
research have implications on the predictive power and reproducibility of products from
bioinformatics. A school of thought in the sciences has defined bioinformatics as
application of tools of computation of biological data in a interdisciplinary approach
that harnesses knowledge and devices from computer science, physics, mathematics,
biology (and chemistry) (Bayat, 2002). Bioinformatics has been beneficial to modern
day biology and invariably in fields in which biological principles are applied such as
agriculture, industrial bio-molecule based productions, medicine and the environment.
Desany and Zhang (2004) in a review described bioinformatics is bridging the gap
between biological knowledge of characterized and sequenced genes and genomes and
clinical therapy through development of new and novel drugs designed against specific
molecular targets, by identifying genes that have properties similar known targets in a
novel conceptual bioinformatics based approach. The human genome project generated
large pool of data from the sequencing of each of the 23 pairs of chromosomes of
normal humans. To meet the demands and tasks of fine, in-depth, fast analysis of these
sequences, use of molecular biology paved way for bioinformatics tools to be engaged.
Bioinformatics tools and knowledge enabled us to now manage the huge amount of
biological data generated from various genome scale sequencing projects around the
world involving diverse selections of genes, molecules, strains and of to integrate large
and disparate datasets (Desany and Zhang, 2004; Bayat, 2002) between different
biological states that these data represents.
In specific application usage and contributions to better life, Bhuvaneshwar and
Gusev (2021) remarked that translational bioinformatics plays a critical role in
biomarker discovery helping the bridge gap between bench research and bedside
clinical applications. This has been supported by entry of newer cheaper cost, and faster
molecular profiling technologies. They added that it has supported better
characterization of patient’s health condition, prediction of treatment responses, monitor
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disease outcomes, and support early detection, intervention and prevention.
Computational biology flows with use of developed algorithms such as those involving
machine learning principles which are helping to uplift our ability to analyze,
synchronize and interpret big data and data swamps. This has supported statistical
analysis that obviously cannot handle the level of huge data generated by genomic
sequences and protein analysis. Typical examples for those from next generation deep
sequences for human, animals and plant genomes under different health conditions, The
Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA)which began in 2006 is designed to be specific for genes
identified to be associated with tumours, has molecularly characterized over 20,000
primary cancer and matched normal samples spanning 33 cancer types from analysis of
over 11,000 tumours .It has generated over 2.4 petabytes of genomic, epigenomic,
transcriptomic and proteomic data has made impacts on diagnoses, treatment and
prevention of cancer (National Cancer Institute, 2022) and its Pan-cancer atlas provides
a uniquely comprehensive, in-depth and interconnected understanding of how, where,
and why tumours arise in humans in pursuit of precision medicine. A feature in working
principle of computational algorithms is the ability of designed programs to identify
vital patterns in large data compendia using either supervised or unsupervised machine
learning algorithms (Greene et al., 2014), train the data and develop algorithms of
application based uses in therapeutics, diagnosis and management of diseases in plants,
animals and humans.
In a rigorous systemic review with meta-analysis of abstracts published in
MEDLINE and Abstracts of NIH funded project grants to determine the growth and
spread of computational approaches across various sub-fields in biomedicine during the
past 50 years, which explored three Bioinformatics concepts of computation, the
internet and databases, between 2000 and 2003 alone, computational biology showed 3-
fold increase while bioinformatics showed 15 fold increase, and identified the main
areas of use in bioinformatics to be protein, gene and nucleic acid databases (Brusic,
2007). Key in its uses are studies geared towards discovering target molecules for new
drugs and vaccines, improving enzymes by bio-engineering, understanding basis for
points of synthetic bio-engineering of gene and protein sequences in re-modeling, for
medicines, enzymes, bio-molecules of use in chemical industries with attributes of
environmental friendliness and cost effectiveness in addition to efficacy. Taken
together, the principles and tools of bioinformatics and computational biology have
presented a clear scenario of how bioinformatics and computational biology-driven
methods, emerging in fields of study in biology, which are used for key experiments,
have resulted to significant speed of processing big biological and clinical data and
economy of mapping of vaccine targets. Better knowledge on concepts are emerging
from new fields within Biology involving neuro-imaging (Dissanayaka et al., 2023), use
of molecular microarray datasets (Wang et al., 2022), molecular neuroscience engaging
single cell biology nucleic acid (mRNA and DNA) analysis using omics and multi-
omics spatially resolved single cell technologies to create brain and tissue genomics
maps (Krokidis et al., 2021; Banack et al., 2020). These are helping us to better
understand pathogenesis and pathophysiology of mental and other neurodegenerative
disorders. Data and development of neurodegenerative drugs on clinical trial trials, for
which some have progressed to higher stages of clinical trials, are good proofs of the
benefits from Bioinformatics in combination with genomic analyses in applications that
support Agriculture, Medicine and Bio-Industries with awareness for greenness and
quality of our ecosystem (through Industrial/Green Biotechnology). For instance, use of
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neural-enriched extracellular vesicles provide microRNA (miRNA) fingerprints with
unequivocal signatures of neuro-degeneration aimed to identify amyotrophic lateral
sclerosis/motor neuron disease (ALS/MND) in patients and assist in early diagnosis of
Alzheimers disease (AD), Parkinsons disease (PD) and ALS/MND ALS/MND where
biomarkers useful for diagnosis, prognosis and analysis of drug efficacy (Banack et al.,
2020).
Synthetic biology
History of synthetic biology has been traced to the beginning of the current
millennium and has been viewed as an bridge connecting progress made in recombinant
DNA technology of the 1970s to improve process of genetic engineering using and
pooled assembly of the fields of biological, chemical and electrical engineering,
bioinformatics, computational biology, and the basics of the biological and physical
sciences. The use of these multi-fields in synthetic biology has supported biotechnology
and bio-manufacturing of more environmentally friendly bio-products that are energy
efficient and cost efficient as well, The products include drugs, chemicals, enzymes,
hormones, bio-fuels , and now venturing to use them to develop better and more
environmentally friendly polymers of use in fabrics, plastics, nylon and related polymer
productions. Scale-up from research products to industrial scale productions requires
optimized bio-process and biochemical engineering process lines and optimized
microbial fermentations processes. The key arms of synthetic biology include pathway
engineering, metabolic engineering, protein engineering, DNA technology, computer
aided bio-molecule designs and re-modeling, systems biology and cell-analysis. For
instance, discovery and use of combinatorial biosynthesis techniques in synthetic
biology approach to bio-engineering of micro-organisms to produce proteins and
glycolipids (Yan et al., 2018). This serves as vital sources of chemical scaffolds for drug
development for animal and crop protection.
Engineering mammalian cells for human therapy in the discovery of a path to
administration of cellular therapeutics in format like direct infusion of cell suspensions,
engraftment of structured tissues and implantation of cells encased in bio-materials;
adoptive transfer of autologous T-cells. Synthetic biology technique enabled
development of tumour-targeting chimeric antigen receptors (CARs) in a form
genetically modified cell therapy approved for human use by the United States Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) in August 2017 (US-FDA, 2022). Introduction of this
new line of cell therapeutics development of bio-engineered cell-based therapeutics for
stem- cell therapy by haematopoetic stem-cell transplantation (HSCT) (Morgan et al.,
2017) for treatment of conditions like multiple myeloma and leukemia aided by
development of advanced tools for bio-engineering of genes, particularly CRISPRi/Cas9
techniques to modify genes of host cells into new strains housing traits of value to
cellular therapeutics (Wong, 2023). Typical products from synthetic biology in synergy
with tools of bioinformatics, computational biology and molecular biology are:
Production of enzymes like Sitgalipin (with brand name Januvia), used together with
diet and exercises to uplift level of controls on blood sugar in adults with type 2
diabetes mellitus); and Diamines (significant ones have meet needs to decongest as
nasal cavity and anti-sneeze ailments, in addition to being components of polymers like
nylon based products) (Voigt, 2020) (Figure 1). This product has enjoyed inputs from
key processes in Synthetic Biology such as design and development of Synthetic cells,
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bio-engineering of genes and genomes, pathway engineering, metabolic engineering and
key methods of design-build-test chassis developments of bio-engineering.
Figure 1. The molecular based chemical structure for Sitgalpin with an enzymatically
produced stereo-centre in red color.
Source: Voigt (2020).
The invention of Bio-isobutanol (iBut16) a product from synthetic Biology and
Biotechnology methods, an approved certified advanced bio-fuel which is added up to
16% v/v in gasoline brands. This is geared towards supporting use of fuel additives used
over the years for the problem associated with bio-fouling of gasoline during storage
caused by bacteria and fungi that form bio-film at a fuel-water interface to produce
organic acids and sulfides. Synthetic biology is helping to develop methods for bio-
refining of fuels have now prompted use of micro-organisms now being highly
considered for consolidation for 2nd generation bio-refining (Kim et al., 2022). This
decade has witnessed the development and approval by USDA of the first drug
Casgevy, a product from use of the gene editing tool of the CRISPR-Cas9 system
(Wong, 2023). Development of CRISPR-Cas9 is credited to the efforts of Jennifer
Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier was around 2012 (Jinek et al., 2012), create cell
and animal models (Tavakol et al., 2021), optimized environmentally friendly bio-
polymers and in gene therapy for disease management and treatment.
Metabolomics in plant and animal biology
Metabolomics is a technique for investigations in systems biology. It is useful in the
study the complexities of chemical processes involving intermediates and products of
metabolism within the cell, tissue or organism. Escudero et al. (2017) defined
metabolomics as the study of metabolites (carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids and
organic acids) present in a biological sample. It has been applied in several fields such
as nutrition through biological food systems, in ophthalmology through investigations
that unveil disease metabolism and pathogenesis to identification of bio-markers (Tan et
al., 2016), applied for Rhizosphere health sustainability in plant and crop protection and
changes in root exudates that were due to presence of fungus, nematode or both
(Escudero et al., 2017), used to screen of cellular activities in biological systems from
set of identified metabolites in cells and tissues of plants and animals (Martins et al.,
2022; Escudero et al., 2017; Tan et al., 2016). Other areas include plant responses to
genetic and environmental perturbations, diagnostic and prediction tool for genes
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functions and regulatory properties of metabolic networks. The tools engaged by
metabolomics includes chromatography to separate molecules, the sensitive
spectroscopy to identify bio-molecules, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) which is
largely quantitative and compliments spectroscopy measurements, among others.
Manchester and Anand (2017) added that metabolomics as a technique in molecular
biology based analysis of applications in several fields of life sciences combines high-
throughput analytical chemistry and multi-variate data analysis to offer a window on
metabolic mechanisms due to the fact that they intimately utilize and often re-wire host
metabolism.
c in Parasitolotgy that help develop new effective drugs (including vaccines) have
cellular and molecular dimensions as emerged concepts in Parasitology and Microbial
studies. For instance, studies that search for key bio-molecules of therapeutics and better
understanding of biology of microbes and the parasitic ones have become useful in
tackling infectious diseases. Gaillard et al. (2021) elucidated their important finding in
their designed anti-tubulin agent that successfully inhibited malaria parasite
proliferation, published in EMBO Molecular Medicine 2021. Tubulin helps substances
to divide and multiply in numbers and their ability to block the action of this tubulin
protein rolled onwards to be a potential therapeutic design. Further tests signaled that
anti-tubulin molecule is potentially a good compound to push on for therapeutics.
Tubulin-inhibiting substances are used by physicians to treat some clinical conditions.
For instance, Texane is used in clinical oncology, and vinca alkaloids (originally
derived from periwinkle plant Catharanthus roseus) block beta tubulin polymerization in
a dividing cell to impede cell divisional and organelle transport process of targeted
cancerous cells.
Elwenspoek et al. (2017) unfolded mechanisms involved in ELA (early life
adversity) immune prototype which can help with strategies to prevent and counteract
negative early life adversity- associated outcomes. Another team of researchers used
same principle of blocking the metabolic pathway of another protein bio-molecule
named PfPX1, known to be involved in transporting hemoglobin to the digestive
vacuoles of malaria parasites (Mukherjee et al., 2022). This led to discovery of the
therapeutic capability of a phosphoinositide-binding protein known to act in the
trafficking pathway of hemoglobin in the malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum. A
critical aspect of this finding is that no malaria drug has been found to utilize this
channel to clear malaria parasites. Recall that malaria parasite digests hemoglobin in its
digestive vacuoles. An elucidative tentative flow chart for the breakdown of
haemoglobin by Plasmodium indicated that there are potential therapeutic targets
derivable along the pathway (Ozurumba, 2012). Studies in epidemiology of microbial
and parasitic infections using molecular techniques are now defining a sub-field of
molecular epidemiology. Typical studies with important findings of worth in
prevention, control and policy formulations have come from studies in Giardia
(Capewell et al., 2021), Lassa fever (Agbolahan et al., 2021) and Tuberculosis bacteria
(Betsou et al., 2011) among others. The use of rapid genome sequencers have been
supportive of molecular epidemiological approach, helping to support understanding of
biology of these organisms studied in Parasitology, Microbiology and generally
infectious diseases.
Medical and Veterinary Zoology includes studies on infectious diseases through
parasitology, physiology, epidemiology and control of diseases and medical
entomology. Medical zoology deals with groups of animals selected on the basis of their
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intimate association with man. It compares those phases of the study of animals that are
most closely associated with the health of mankind (Hegner, 1921).
Molecular physiology and neurobiology
Brain biology has made advances to support healthcare and insights into concepts
underlying processing of activities by the brain using neuro-imaging and molecular
techniques. A typical study provided clues to uncover corroborative evidence of
fluctuating activity patterns in a separate dataset involving responses of infero-temporal
cortex neurons to multiple visual stimuli. The study observed corroborations that
showed that single neurons may encode simultaneous stimuli by switching between
activity patterns (Caruso et al., 2018). In a proof of concept clinical trial based study by
Dissanayaka et al. (2023) it sought to establish hippocampal sub-region functional
impairment and proof of concept of the anti-epileptic drug levetiracetam as an early
therapeutic option to reduce dementia risk in Parkinson disease PD, based on prior
promise shown on hyperactivation of hippocampal DG/CA3 (dentate
gyrus/hippocampus sub-field CA3) subfields during episodic memory task, as a
biomarker of amnestic mild cognitive impairmernt (aMCI) related to Alzheimers
disease. Another research reminded us that despite the fact that more than 100
monogenic causes of Leigh syndrome have been identified, yet the pathophysiology
remains unknown. Thus, their engaging the power of transcriptomics (in expression
weighted cell type enrichment EWCE analysis of single cell RNAseq data) to screen for
areas of potential commonalities of Leigh syndrome and other diseases with
overlapping clinical features, in an interface study embracing medicine and biology
through neurobiology.
Endocrine controls of key bio-molecules in the physiological makeup of animals and
humans, such as glycogen and triglycerol breakdown in animal models, are opening up
insights into mechanisms of anabolism (synthesis) and catabolism (breakdown) of
energy stores in the model organisms. Genetic regulations of glycogen and fat energy
reserves in metabolic pathways have been found to be relatively conserved across
insects, higher animals and humans despite areas of considerable differences between
them (Gáliková and Klepsatel, 2023). This is a crucial input into the body of knowledge
in animal physiology. Studies in neurophysiology have heralded themes of studies such
as seeking to better understand role of bio-molecules associated with pathways for
synthesis and modulation of activities. A typical example is that of a study on the
concepts that define neuromodulation by Liessem et al. (2021), in which they found
neuromodulation does not require to be complex in composition, such as requiring large
numbers of peptides but can be simple and mediated by dedicated regulatory neurons
(Liessem et al., 2021). The key facts and data generated are useful for bioengineering
designs and product developments that support physiotherapy recovery and movements
of patients with nervous and neuronal based systemic breakdown (Zadeh et al., 2023;
Terunuma et al., 2017). These studies in molecular physiology have taken advantage of
bespoke tools from molecular biology, molecular genetics, metabolomics and genomics
to do deep level studies on bio-molecules, and cellular networks in animal systems.
The emergence of studies on whole crop plant genomes has been attractive to
improving crop plants varieties. A typical study by Raza et al. (2023) investigated Pan-
genome for pearl millet crop plant that overcomes heat stress. The findings from this
study indicated that structural variations (SVs) are crucial for genetic improvement and
fast breeding under adverse or stressed environmental conditions. Then a graph-based
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pan-genome study by Yan et al. (2018) observed the presence of 424,085 genomic SVs
to give new dimensions of insights into dynamics of heat tolerance of pearl millet. This
study combined use of tools and concepts from molecular biology, genomics and crop
plant physiology. The use of plants to obtain therapeutic extracts is an equally important
part of plant biology called ethnobotany or ethnopharmaceutics. Anti-cancer (Parisi et
al., 2023), and other anti-pathogen plants extracts have been discovered with varying
levels of potency against these pathogenic organisms. Algae, bacterial and fungal
biology is making some leaps with emergent support from biotechnology. Algae
biotechnology is using biological properties of algae to develop products for food,
energy, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics industry (Pereira et al., 2023), capitalizing on
the attributes of algae versatility in photosynthesis and ability for rapid growth.
Nanothechnology has supported algae biotechnology by using it to control and
manipulate metabolic events in algae at nanoscales to create new structures, devices and
systems with greater efficiency and precision (Pereira et al., 2023). Algae biotechnology
and nanotechnology combined usage is applied in production of various biotechnology
products that includes bio-fuels. This is green biotechnology, supporting sustainable
development.
Plant and animal ecology, conservation and environmental biology
The fields of ecology and conservation have evolved rapidly over the past century
and add to the illumination on ecological hypotheses and theories, the adoption of
statistical genetic and social science approaches (Anderson et al., 2021), such as through
climate change, invasive species, ecosystem services, meta-analysis. Just like its parent
body biology, ecology has metamorphosed from a largely descriptive field focused on
natural history and observational studies into data-driven, multidisciplinary field
focused on applied environmental issues. Biology plays a critical role in support of
sustenance of our environment in various ways. For instance, in the use of genetics to
support effects of environmental radiations and pollution on quality of life; monitoring
of chromosomal shapes, numbers and nucleotide sequences on selected genes or
genome; use of certain organisms like phyto-planktons, zooplanktons and other
microbes to serve as pollution indicators in aquatic and terrestrial water bodies. Now
this is emerging with new concepts accompanied with design and building of gene
edited cell factories with opportunities to engage synthetic cells to synthesize bio-
plastics (Lhamo et al., 2021; Pilla, 2011; Sudesh and Iwata, 2008; Peoples and Sinskey,
1989) that degrade faster in the environment on being dumped.
Then is a field of ecology which has overlaps with environmental biology where
Biologist explore, monitor and study various natural ecological problems facing life on
earth- such as global warming, greenhouse effect, climate change and depletion of the
ozone layer, with biology core studies and in collaborations with Chemists,
Astronomers, Climatologists and Physicist, to make the world a safer place to live in
and sustain life on earth. Ecology has been supported with molecular approaches to
facilitate studies on predicting parasites and microbial transmission, their population
dynamics and growth patterns and simulating studies, now building algorithms to
support monitoring of environmental issues for improved preventive measures against
various pathogens. In a study by Anderson et al. (2021) using large full-text culturomic
analysis of ecology and conservation Journals, covering 80 years, 52 Journals and half a
billion words, it was observed that many common terms today, including climate
change, phylogenetics, and biodiversity were coined only in recent decades. Ecology
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and conservation have broadened from local field studies to include global issues, and
increasingly feature advanced statistical modeling. As such, a strong interest in genetic
variation and diversity began to emerge in the ecology. Entomology studies insects and
their relationship with humans, animals, plants and the environment (Washington State
University, 2023). Knowledge of the Biology of insects is vital to understanding the
diseases that they carry and spread (Royal Entomological Society, 2023). Insects have
become models for life processes, such as Drosophilia used in genetic studies due to its
short generation time, small size and ease of being by scientists.
Emerging technologies with potential to make significant impact on entomology are
high- throughput DNA sequencing (HTDS) generating huge data DNA sequences-
information that can be referenced between tissue and whole organismal levels, and
spatial repellents. The last few decades witnessed increased use of high-resolution
remote sensing to study small organisms such as insects at various resolutions (Rhodes
et al., 2022). Such usage has enabled mapping environmental variables to specific insect
populations, their destructive feeding patterns for crop damaging ecological behaviors.
There are emerging interesting areas in forensic and economic entomology. The study
of insects serve as basis for development of in biological and chemical pest control,
food and fiber production and storage systems, pharmaceutical entomology, and
biological diversity (Washington State University, 2023). Fisheries has been moving
towards achieving environmental integrity and sustainability, with the contributions of
fisheries and aquaculture to global food security linked to increased fish consumption
(Wang et al., 2018). Based on premise that aquatic food systems are a powerful solution
to food insecurity and quest for sustainability of our environment, blue transformation
has been an in-thing in fisheries. Climate- and environmentally friendly policies and
practices, as well as technological innovations, are critical building blocks for Blue
transformation. Blue transformation is a strategy that aims to enhance the role of aquatic
food systems in feeding the worlds growing population. Some ocean creatures are a
challenge to study because they live in places that are difficult to get to or because they
have complex life cycles (NOAA, 2023). This has warranted using unique tools such as
drones (both aerial and sail), satellite tags, remote and automated underwater vehicles,
acoustics, genetics and research ships in new technologies to gather and analyze
ecosystems and marine life.
Genetic tools such as mitochondrial, SSRs, ISSRs and SNPs have helped to do
fingerprinting studies, paternity testing and population genetic studies (Amoussou et al.,
2019). Aquaculture is a critical component of global food security and selective
breeding has offered substantial opportunities to enhance production efficiency (Nguyen
et al., 2022; Sun et al., 2020) in seafood supply and study related diseases. Recent
research advances in genetics and omics are being engaged to enhance aquaculture
breeding. One other area of research has involved assessing genetic diversity of founder
stocks to facilitate forming a base population with large genetic variability that ensures
long term response to selection and to assist in identification and recruitment of
genetically diverse stocks for selective breeding programs as earlier demonstrated by
Guo (2009). Genetic selection as highlighted here has supported improved productivity,
growth, survival and quality of several aquaculture species in a breeding revolution
(Song et al., 2023). Furthermore, Palaiokostas et al. (2016) stepped into an emerging
area of aquaculture research involving genomic prediction of breeding values through
genomic section of for traits that are difficult to measure such as meat quality and
disease resistance. Also, genomic studies have provided a framework informing us on
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concepts on working fish immune systems, related proteins and cells through cellular
and molecular tools. The application of wonder tools of synthetic biology such as
TALEN (Transcription-activation-like effector nucleases) and CRISPR (clustered
regularly interspaced short palindronic repeats) systems based gene editing tools has
yielded positive results in fish quality and enhanced features (Gutási et al., 2023; Sun et
al., 2020; Li and Wang 2017). A typical study engaged CRISPR-Cas9 and TALEN to
do gene editing and transfers which helped shorten maturation time for Spurgeon
species of fish (Nguyen et al., 2022).
Conclusion
Biology has grown over the scores of decades from its approximate period of start-up
or awareness in history of over a century ago, centering mostly on structural and
descriptive attributes of living things onto present era Biology. Biology has enjoyed
good partnership with tools and principles in medicine, pharmacy, computer and
informatics, physics (with emergence of biophysiscs), chemistry (with studies from
chemical biology), and space science with emergence of space biology exploring nature
of life outside planet earth. Present era Biology utilizes discoveries from use of
microscope, contents of atoms from physical and mathematical/statistical sciences,
molecular biology with DNA/gene as inclusive core components, alongside
collaborations with physical sciences, computer science and engineering, to explore
deeper into nature, life forms, intricacies, solve life problems, open up more useful
knowledge based attributes and better elucidate metabolic pathways and processes with
translatable benefits. Biology is still growing and has not reached the apex because
emerging challenges and changes in structure of challenges from our natural
environment tend to always propel need or zeal to discover, formulate, test and design
new paths of studying rare phenomena in Biology.
Acknowledgement
Gratitude to University of Manchester Biotech, UC London, Peking University
Bioinformatics, Danish Technical University DTU Biotech, The Open University
Milton Keynes UK and to Biology and Neurosciences at Johns Hopkins and Duke
Universities.
Conflict of interest
The authors confirm that there is no conflict of interest involve with any parties in
this research study.
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